A New Perspective on Sympathy and Its Cultivation, with Insights from the Confucian Tradition by Jing Hu Department of Philosophy Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ David Wong, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Owen Flanagan, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Michael Ferejohn ___________________________ Wayne Norman Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Duke University 2017 ABSTRACT A New Perspective on Sympathy and Its Cultivation, with Insights from the Confucian Tradition by Jing Hu Department of Philosophy Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ David Wong, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Owen Flanagan, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Michael Ferejohn ___________________________ Wayne Norman An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Duke University 2017 Copyright by Jing Hu 2017 Abstract My dissertation aims to show that sympathy, when well-cultivated, is adequate to motivate and produce altruistic behavior in a consistent and reliable manner. I do so by creating a dialogue between the Chinese and Western philosophical traditions. I define sympathy as a four-dimensional emotion—including perceptive, visceral, motivational and cognitive aspects. I argue that sympathy in its mature stage is capable of motivating people in a consistent manner, and its role in morality cannot be replaced by other emotions. In addition, I argue that the leap from an unstable reaction to a mature, consistent and reliable emotion is made through proper cultivation. Cultivational methods such as ritual practice, rational persuasion, self-cultivation, etc. are discussed and evaluated. I also discuss the limitations of sympathy and its cultivation towards the end of the dissertation. iv Dedication To grandpa. v Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... x Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ xi 1. Introduction: A Project on Sympathy ............................................................................. 1 1.1 Why Should We Study Sympathy? ........................................................................... 1 1.2 Why Now? ................................................................................................................ 2 1.3 What is Special about This Project? ......................................................................... 3 1.3.1 Bridging the East and the West .......................................................................... 4 1.3.2 Seeking the Missing Piece: From a Problematic Emotion to a Cardinal Virtue 6 1.4 The Primitive VS Mature Form of Sympathy .......................................................... 8 1.5 This Project’s Tasks ................................................................................................ 11 2. Sympathy Redefined ..................................................................................................... 14 2.1 Why Do We Need Yet a New Definition? .............................................................. 14 2.2 ‘Sympathy’ and ‘Empathy’ in History ................................................................... 16 2.2.1 ‘Sympathy’ ....................................................................................................... 17 2.2.2 ‘Empathy’ ......................................................................................................... 18 2.3 Sympathy/Empathy Today— 5 Reasons Why We Couldn’t Reach a Unified Definition ...................................................................................................................... 20 2.4 A Stipulated Definition of Sympathy in This Project ............................................. 29 vi 3. An Analysis of the Primitive Form of Sympathy .......................................................... 35 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 35 3.2 An Interpretation of Mencius 2A6 .......................................................................... 36 3.3 The Contexts and the Subject of Sympathy—A General Response ...................... 38 3.4 The Cognitive Component, Perception of Distress and Eliciting Condition ......... 40 3.4.1 An Evolutionary Perspective ............................................................................ 42 3.4.2 A Discussion of Hoffman’s 5 Modes of Empathetic Arousal ........................... 44 3.5 The Affective Aspect/ “I Feel Your Pain” .............................................................. 49 3.6 The Motivational Component — Dictates No Specific Action .............................. 51 3.7 The Mencian Triplet .............................................................................................. 53 3.7.1 The Mencian Perceptive-Affective-Motive Triplet .......................................... 54 3.7.2 Shared Representation ..................................................................................... 56 3.7.3 Action-specific Perception Theory ................................................................... 59 3.8 The High Cognitive Activities as a Part of Ceyin zhi xin .......................................... 61 3.9 The Russian Doll Model ......................................................................................... 63 3.10 No Ulterior Motives and Suddenness in 2A6 ....................................................... 67 3.11 Sympathizing with the Beasts ............................................................................... 71 3.12 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 73 4. Cultivating Sympathy ................................................................................................... 75 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 75 4.2 From Sparing an Ox to Benevolent Policy-Making ............................................... 77 4.2.1 Mencius 1A7 .................................................................................................... 77 4.2.2 From an Ox to the King's People—3 Dimensions .......................................... 78 vii 4.2.3 Does the King Possess the Primitive Form of Sympathy? ............................... 81 4.2.4 Toward the Mature Form of Sympathy .......................................................... 84 4.3 Sympathetic Perception .......................................................................................... 89 4.3.1 To See VS. To Apprehend .............................................................................. 90 4.3.2 Strengthen Basic Sensitivity ............................................................................. 94 4.3.3 To Learn and Recognize Suffering Clues ........................................................ 99 4.3.4 Understanding Others' Perspective – Stepping into Others' Shoes ............... 100 4.3.5 Caring and Beliefs .......................................................................................... 106 4.3.6 Pattern Matching ........................................................................................... 108 4.4 Additional Important Factors in Cultivating Sympathy ....................................... 110 4.4.1 Commitment to Ethical Cultivation .............................................................. 110 4.4.2 Verbal Persuasion .......................................................................................... 111 4.4.3 Constancy ...................................................................................................... 115 4.4.4 Actions One Frequently Performs ................................................................. 115 4.4.5 Ritual Practice ................................................................................................ 117 5. Prinz’s “Empathy” Revisited ...................................................................................... 119 5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 119 5.2 Prinz’s “Empathy” Revisited ................................................................................ 121 5.3 Emotion Sharing VS. Other-oriented Emotion Congruent with the Other’s Situation ...................................................................................................................... 122 5.4 Matching Mental State ......................................................................................... 127 5.5 “Concern” and “Empathy”, Prinz on Batson’s Choice of Terms ........................ 131 6. Sympathy and Morality .............................................................................................. 139 viii 6.1 Introduction and the Objectives ........................................................................... 139 6.2 Sympathy