A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Imagined Futures: The Onward Migration of Nigerians in Europe Jill Ahrens Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in Geography School of Global Studies University of Sussex June 2017 ii Summary of Thesis Dynamic mobility and migration patterns, including forced migration, have always formed part of the complex social, cultural and economic relationships between Africa and Europe. Like other Africans, Nigerian migrants live in countless locations around the world and are connected to their homeland through contingent transnational networks. This thesis explores the onward migration of Nigerian migrants towards, within and beyond Europe and analyses the motivations, patterns and outcomes of their multiple movements. Six cities in Germany, the UK and Spain are the main research locations for the fieldwork that took place over 17 months. The three countries are important destinations for Nigerian migrants in Europe and also the principal destinations of intra-European onward migrants. The cities included in this study are the capital cities Berlin, London and Madrid, as well as Cologne, Manchester and Málaga. The multi-sited fieldwork comprised ethnographic research techniques involving in-depth interviews (to gather information about the motivations and experiences of onward migrants) and participant observation (to understand the contexts in which mobility practices were embedded), which were complemented with analysis of the 2011 Census data and other secondary statistical data (to explore general migration patterns and socio-demographic data). Onward migration is conceptualised as a function of aspirations and capabilities, thus highlighting how evolving structures of opportunities and constraints can influence social and geographical trajectories. The findings suggest that migrant decision-making and trajectories are open-ended and unfold across the life course and the migration project. Furthermore, onward migrants engage in sustained multi-sited transnationalism which influences their complex mobility patterns and identity formation. Rather than focusing on migrants’ integration at a destination or their contribution to development in their origin country, as is common in migration studies, this study uses the wellbeing approach to holistically explore how migrants and their families experience onward migration in different places and countries. Their perceptions of wellbeing are multi-dimensional and relational, shaped both by previous, present and anticipated future states of wellbeing. iii Acknowledgments Over the years Russell King and Michael Collyer have provided enormous support as my supervisors for this thesis. I am grateful for their guidance, kindness and reassurance which gave me confidence and helped me grow as a researcher. I am also indebted to many fellow students and colleagues within the School of Global Studies and the Sussex Centre for Migration Research (SCMR), in particular Naluwembe Binaisa, Lena Näre, Cynthia Okpokiri, Daniela DeBono, Gunjan Sondhi, Julie Vullnetari, Richard Black, Jayne Paulin, Anastasia Christou, Sharon Krummel, Ceri Oeppen, Jenny Money and Ron Skeldon. All of them made Sussex a very interesting and enjoyable place study and work. This thesis was supported by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) under grant agreement n° A1075642 which allowed me to conduct fieldwork in Germany in affiliation with the Centre on Migration, Citizenship and Development at Bielefeld University. I also held a Yggdrasil Visiting Research Fellowship from the Research Council of Norway (Norges Forskningsråd) under grant agreement n° 227295/F11 for a research stay in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo. Furthermore, I greatly benefited from a Marie Curie Early Stage Researcher position at the Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning (IGOT), University of Lisbon. This fellowship was part of the initial training network on ‘Integration and International Migration: Pathways and Integration Policies’ (INTEGRIM) funded by the European Union’s 7th Framework Programme under grant agreement n° 316796. In addition, I received invaluable assistance from other people across several countries, even though I am not able to spell out all the details here to ensure anonymity. In Germany, members of the Nigerians in Diaspora Organisation, as well as the staff at Diakonie and Allerweltshaus greatly assisted my research. I would also like to thank Thomas Faist, Stefanie Föbker and Claus Wiegandt. In the UK, I appreciate the feedback and support provided by the Citizens Advice Bureau, and several councillors and Nigerian community organisations. A special thanks goes to Jane, Christian and Helen. In Spain, I am particularly indebted to the Nigerian Community, as well as numerous other Nigerian associations and churches where I was able to make useful contacts. Especially, Edmond Agyeman, Peter Bilson Obour, Mama G and Charles helped me to settle and kept me good company. During my research stay in Oslo I appreciated the collegiality of Sarvendra Tharmalingam, Katrine Fangen, Heidi Haugen, Tone Maia Liodden, Jørgen Carling and Marta Bivand Erdal. Many thanks also to Emma, Leo and Dina for the skiing adventures, potlucks and laughter. In Lisbon, several colleagues provided a warm welcome and particular thanks iv is due to Lucinda Fonseca, Jennifer McGarrigle, Jorge Malheiros, Alina Esteves, Susana Siborro, Franz Buhr, Adélia Verônica da Silva and José Mapril. I also valued being part of the dispersed INTEGRIM ‘gang’ and the training opportunities we were able to enjoy together. Finally, I am indebted to several other colleagues, who generously provided feedback on my research and chapter drafts, namely Ilse van Liempt, Ben Lampert, Giovanna Campani, Parvati Raghuram, Albert Kraler, Marie Godin, Oluwafunmilayo Alakija, Melissa Kelly, Mary Anju Paul, Ayumi Takenaka and Kingsley Madueke. Of course, this research would not have been possible without my informants. I appreciate the time they gave freely to share their stories and the invitations they extended for me to join them in their homes, to share meals, celebrations and sorrows. I learnt so much from my informants and was inspired by their perseverance and hope. Last but not least, I am grateful for the kindness and generosity of my family and friends. Many thanks to Helen, Emily, Léonie, Abdi, Emma, Burki and Elisabetta for being there in different ways. My parents Mary and Eckart who always believed in me and let me follow my path. My brother Paddy and his wife Thea for their words of encouragement. Thanks also to my ‘adopted’ grandparents Helga and Peter for recounting their memories of our family’s flight, which got me thinking about migration from a young age. Finally, I am grateful for the unwavering support I received from my partner Hugo. Our dancing and walks brought me tremendous joy and cleared my mind. My love and appreciation for being by my side. v Table of Contents Summary of Thesis ii Acknowledgments iii Table of Contents v Indices viii List of Abbreviations ix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 A chance encounter 1 1.2 Onward migration: defining the term 2 1.3 Diverse global onward mobilities 4 1.4 Research focus and aims 6 1.5 Research questions 8 1.6 Thesis outline 9 Chapter 2 Geographies and Theories of Multiple and Onward Migrations 11 2.1 Multiple migrations in the migration literature 11 2.2 Assessing Nigerian (onward) migration through migration theory 17 2.3 Conceptualising the process of onward migration 28 2.3.1 Evolving aspirations and capabilities 29 2.3.2 Multi-sited transnationalism and translocalities 32 2.3.3 Social inequality and wellbeing 33 2.4 Summary 36 Chapter 3 Methodology 38 3.1 Research design 38 3.1.1 Mixed-methods research 38 3.1.2 Multi-sited research 42 3.2 A transnational and translocal research field 46 3.2.1 Negotiating access 46 3.2.2 Sampling techniques 48 3.3 Research techniques 49 3.3.1 Participant observation 49 3.3.2 Visual methods 51 3.3.3 In-depth interviews 52 3.3.4 Descriptive statistics 54 vi 3.4 Positionalities 56 3.5 Ethical concerns 59 3.6 Data analysis 61 3.7 Summary 63 Chapter 4 Europe in Africa, Africa in Europe: Nigerian Migration and Diaspora 64 4.1 Multi-faceted Nigerian migration dynamics 65 4.1.1 Pre-colonial migration patterns 65 4.1.2 Colonial and post-independence migration patterns 67 4.2 From ‘waithood’ in Nigeria to ‘migranthood’ in Europe 72 4.2.1 The formation of migration aspirations in Nigeria after 1990 72 4.2.2 Characteristics and dispersion of Nigerian migrants 76 4.3 Summary 86 Chapter 5 Policies and Statistics on African Migration and Onward Migration 88 5.1 European policies concerning African migration 88 5.1.1 Securitisation and networks of immigration control 89 5.1.2 The EU’s ‘externalisation’ of migration control 95 5.2 Migration within Europe and beyond: facts and figures 98 5.3 Summary 106 Chapter 6 Interactions