Running head: HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY AND HELP SEEKING HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY AND ITS EFFECT ON ATTITUDES TOWARD SEEKING PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL HELP A dissertation presented by Seth Perkins Submitted to The Department of Counseling and Applied Educational Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Counseling Psychology Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts July, 2015 HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY AND HELP SEEKING 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................................2 Chapter One - Literature Review: Masculinity as a Pathogen ..........................................................................................3 Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................................3 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................4 Gender Role Socialization During Childhood and Adolescence .......................................................................................6 Masculinity in the Classroom .............................................................................................................................................8 Masculinity and Muscularity .............................................................................................................................................9 Why Are Males Less Likely to Seek Help? .................................................................................................................... 10 Masculinity and Aggression ............................................................................................................................................ 12 Masculinity and Its Effects on Physical and Mental Health Problems ............................................................................ 14 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Implications for Practitioners ................................................................................................................................ 17 References ........................................................................................................................................................................ 19 Chapter Two - Hegemonic Masculinity and Its Effect on Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................................... 27 The Social Construction of Gender and Hegemonic Masculinity ................................................................................... 28 Power and Privilege, but at What Cost? .......................................................................................................................... 30 In What Ways Does Hegemonic Masculinity Jeopardize Mental Health?: Associations Between Adherence to Traditional Masculinity and Mental Health Issues .......................................................................................................... 31 Men's Avoidance and Disparagement of Mental Health Services: Is Hegemonic Masculinity Implicated? ................... 34 Deviations from "the Norm" ........................................................................................................................................... 37 Racial/Ethnic Group Differences .......................................................................................................................... 39 Social Class Differences ........................................................................................................................................ 43 Age Differences .................................................................................................................................................... 43 Ability/Disability Status Differences ..................................................................................................................... 44 Sexual Orientation Differences ............................................................................................................................. 45 What Are the "Core" Ideologies Deterring Help Seeking? ............................................................................................. 46 Method ............................................................................................................................................................................ 50 Participants ............................................................................................................................................................ 50 Measures ............................................................................................................................................................... 51 Procedure .............................................................................................................................................................. 53 Results ............................................................................................................................................................................. 54 Preliminary Analyses ............................................................................................................................................ 54 Primary Analyses .................................................................................................................................................. 56 Responses to Open-Ended, Follow-Up Questions ................................................................................................. 68 Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 86 Primary Analyses .................................................................................................................................................. 86 Responses to Follow-Up Questions ....................................................................................................................... 98 Implications ......................................................................................................................................................... 104 Limitations .......................................................................................................................................................... 107 Future Directions ................................................................................................................................................. 109 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................... 111 References ..................................................................................................................................................................... 113 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................................... 127 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................................... 128 Appendix C ................................................................................................................................................................... 133 Appendix D ................................................................................................................................................................... 134 Appendix E ................................................................................................................................................................... 135 Appendix F .................................................................................................................................................................... 136 Appendix G ................................................................................................................................................................... 137 Appendix H ................................................................................................................................................................... 138 HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY AND HELP SEEKING 2 Acknowledgements I once read that growth occurs at the edge of support and challenge. I want to thank all of my committee members, Dr. Sanchez, Dr. Robinson-Wood, and Dr. Ballou, for providing me with just the right amount of both. Throughout the process of completing my dissertation, I grew as a researcher, as a clinician, and as a man. Hopefully, the sum total of this project reflects that.