i “Harmonized by the earth”: Land, Landscape, and Place in Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights BY ELIZABETH G. BEVIN A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of WAKE FOREST UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS English May 2018 Winston-Salem, North Carolina Approved By: Jennifer Pyke, Ph.D., Advisor Jefferson Holdridge, Ph. D., Chair Melissa Jenkins, Ph. D. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Most importantly, thank you to my family— especially my parents, Bryan and Michaela Bevin, for affording me the opportunities of my educational career and for supporting me on the entire journey. Special thanks to my advisor, Dr. Jennifer Pyke, and my defense committee members, Dr. Jefferson Holdridge and Dr. Melissa Jenkins. Many thanks, also, to Dr. Claudia Kairoff for being a helpful reader of my work. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT …………………………..….....…………………… iv INTRODUCTION: Land, Landscape, and Belonging …….….………. v CHAPTERS: Chapter 1: Exile and the Idea of “Location” ………….....…... 1 Chapter 2: Confinement, Gender Roles, and Power …...……. 25 Chapter 3: Bodies, Embodiment, and the Land …….…..…… 39 CONCLUSION ……..………………………..……….…....…... 58 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………..…........... 62 CURRICULUM VITAE …………………………..….....………... 65 iv ABSTRACT This thesis focuses on the implications of location on the characters of Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights , concentrating on three key concepts: exile and the idea of “location,” confinement in a limited community, and embodiment of the landscape. Chapter 1 argues that the characters are exiled, othered, held separate from the larger social body around them. As a result of this exile, the characters of Wuthering Heights become the limited population of their own exiled community. Chapter 2 argues that, as a result of being exiled, the characters become confined within the limited social body. Some characters work to confine others, some overcome limitations of gender, and others fall victim to those who seek and gain power. Chapter 3 takes on the idea of the characters becoming citizens of the landscape. The moors are the catalyst for their exile and subsequent confinement, but also, paradoxically, become home. As a result of these three concepts, the landscape becomes indicative of who the characters are. The characters cannot break away from the moors, cannot rejoin the larger social body, and cannot separate who they are from the moors around them, because they become intrinsically connected to the landscape. v INTRODUCTION “Harmonized by the earth”: Land, Landscape, and Belonging Set on the Yorkshire Moors, Emily Brontë’s 1847 gothic novel, Wuthering Heights , created a new community that was human but that was also, paradoxically, unreachable and unfamiliar. In the novel, the landscape acts as a way to perpetuate the idea of the gothic—the alarming, the supernatural— by adopting a visual cue that creates the perception of wrongness. Brontë’s creation of an unfamiliar community, tethered to landscape, is evident in her definition of the word “wuthering” on page one. Creating the word just as she creates landscape, Brontë defines wuthering as “being a significant provincial adjective, descriptive of the atmospheric tumult to which its station is exposed in stormy weather” (Brontë 1). The limited community is defined by the landscape in which it is located, and this environment embodies the stormy, tumultuous tale that the definition of wuthering foreshadows. The entire narrative is, first and foremost, situated in relation to the moors, the place that becomes synonymous with the characters and the plot. For my thesis, I am focusing on three separate parts of Wuthering Heights , but three parts that are all anchored in the effects of the characters’ connection to life on the moors: life separated from the larger social body, life with each other in the limited community, and life attempting to understand self in relation to oneself, to others, and to the idea of mortality. The most vital piece of the Wuthering Heights is the specific, isolated location. Therefore, for my thesis, I chose to follow the consequences and impacts vi of the characters’ being situated on the moors of Yorkshire. I purposefully chose to work solely with Wuthering Heights because it has so many layers to peel away in relation to the gothic, the characters, and the landscape. Studying just one novel allows me to consciously explore the mental and physical implications of place on the characters. Due to their separation from the outside world, the characters are exiled from society and experience the physical and mental confinement of strict expectations and the changing power dynamics while solidifying their connection to the landscape. The anchor of drama in the novel is in the landscape, but while an anchor is a steadfast, solid image, Wuthering Heights’ landscape is also the driving, shifting force within the novel. Landscape in the novel acts as both an ever- present, stationary place that links the characters to one another and situates the story in relation to its population, and at the same time, acts as a driving force that changes the characters’ story. The landscape is so integral and instrumental in the novel that it becomes akin to a main character, but a character so complex that it cannot be read as either protagonist or antagonist. Although biographical connections are easy to make between Emily and her characters’ isolated lives and love of the moors, I avoided a biographical reading of the novel, instead utilizing a formal reading of the way landscape functions through the text of this female gothic novel. In Literary Women , Ellen Moers explores the great female writers, such as Emily Brontë. The chapter entitled “Female Gothic” explores the work that female writers have done in the Gothic genre since the eighteenth century. Explaining the Gothic genre as having to do with fear, Moers explains that Gothic vii novels “fantasy predominates over reality, the strange over the commonplace,” and that the “auctorial intent” in the gothic is “to scare” (Moers 90). The original reviews of gothic novels “tended to emphasize the physiological reactions” to the Gothic, such as hair sticking on end, curdling blood, the quickening of the heart— physical reactions to the frightening Gothic novels (91). Readers of the Gothic genre came to expect the shocking. In a tale of “graveyard lusts and wandering ghosts,” Wuthering Heights takes on the ideas of the Gothic (100). But, what is scary, or the scariest part, about Wuthering Heights ? Despite the presence of ghosts and Gothic elements, I argue that the most shocking elements are the inhabitants’ lack of humanity, immorality, and unrecognizable human actions for the everyman. The frightening part of Wuthering Heights is the otherness, the cruelty, and the revenge that the characters are enacting on each other. The characters in the novel treat each other in ways that cannot be understood by members of the larger social body, because they are not part of that society. Instead, the landscape they are living on, the moors of Yorkshire, separates the characters from the outside world, causing them to become strange, other, and unrecognizable to civilized people. The distance between the members of the moors society and people from the outside world is represented through the character of Mr. Lockwood. Lockwood, the narrator, “established our distance from the central Brontë world,” representing the sensibilities and expectations of the normal, understand world (Moers 101). Lockwood acts as an intermediary between the reader, the normal world, and the world Brontë creates on the moors. Lockwood serves as a reminder of what is normal and expected, in viii comparison to the monstrous people he meets on the moors. Ellen Moers asks “What are monsters? Creatures who scare because they look different, wrong, non-human” (101). In the case of Wuthering Heights , the people do not look like creatures, but instead act like it, especially Catherine and Heathcliff. The inhabitants of the moors, most notably Heathcliff and Cathy, develop such an ingrained bond with the landscape around them that the landscape becomes more representative of their self than Lockwood, or the larger social body. The landscape becomes a mirror for the characters, especially Catherine, to see and understand themselves. Just as Sylvia Plath’s “Lady Lazarus” shows the self-hatred of women in the Gothic, and the monster in the Gothic become the self, Wuthering Heights’ landscape acts as a mirror through which Catherine can come to know and judge herself in relation to her surroundings. Moers describes the Female Gothic as a genre where “woman is examined with a woman’s eye, woman as girl, as sister, as mother, as self” (109) In Wuthering Heights , Cathy has few female, human options to compare herself to because of her exile in a space disconnected from the larger social body. Instead, Catherine finds herself in relation to the land, which “gives visual form to the fear of self, to hold anxiety up to the Gothic mirror of Imagination” (107). Due to their shared connection to the landscape, Cathy and Heathcliff develop a strong connection to each other. Cathy can see herself, and the connection she desires with the wild landscape, reflected through Heathcliff. Wuthering Heights becomes a tale of the Female Gothic and an attempt to understand self in a space of being othered. The landscape acts as both instigator and savior in relation to the