Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences (2013) 12, 27–37 King Saud University Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences www.ksu.edu.sa www.sciencedirect.com FULL LENGTH ARTICLE The dynamics of rice production in Indonesia 1961–2009 Dyah R. Panuju a,*, Kei Mizuno b, Bambang H. Trisasongko a a Department of Soil Sciences and Land Resources, Bogor Agricultural University, Jalan Meranti, Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia b Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan Received 4 September 2011; accepted 14 May 2012 Available online 22 May 2012 KEYWORDS Abstract Rice is one of the important agricultural products in Indonesia. The production has been Rice; fully supported by infrastructure including research and development as well as government regu- Production; lations in pricing. Its vulnerability to climate change requires adaptation strategies on irrigation, Land capability; biotechnology and selection of alternative crops. The primary goal of this paper was to evaluate Seed varieties; the historical perspective of the dynamics of rice production, technologies particularly in seed inven- Irrigation; tions, labour in farming and consumption of rice from 1961 to 2009 in conjunction with land capa- Consumption bility. The study of historical rice production could be a benefit for future agricultural planning in Indonesia. ª 2012 King Saud University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction government policies on rice subsidy might contribute on the attractiveness to consume rice more than the others. Recently, rice (Oryza sativa) has become the staple food for al- Infrastructure including research and development (R&D) most all Indonesians, although according to Boomgard (2003) and regulations has been supporting the dynamics of rice pro- maize provided a source of carbohydrate for people in the duction in Indonesia. During the Dutch colonization, irriga- Eastern regions of Indonesia in the 17th century. Other tion networks were developed to support paddy cultivation, carbohydrate sources such as roots and tubers had been intro- mainly concentrated in Java Island. Van Valkenberg (1925) re- duced by Europeans from about 16th to 19th century, includ- ported that irrigation systems in Java were mainly related to ing Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum), cassava (Manihot existing stream channel such as (Bengawan) Solo River in utilisima), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and taro (Colocasia Central Java and Cimanuk River in West Java. After indepen- esculenta). Those kinds of crops have been less popular than dence, Indonesian government attempted to maintain and sub- rice for most of Indonesians even during the worst Indonesian sequently expand new irrigation networks. Recently, the Food economic turmoil 1997–1999 (Hartini et al., 2005). Long-term and Agriculture Organization (FAO) noticed about 4.5 million hectares of paddy fields are supported by irrigation networks. Several discussions about Indonesian paddy fields are found * Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +62 251 8422322. in the literature. Two papers by van Valkenberg (1925, 1936) on E-mail address: [email protected] (D.R. Panuju). Javanese agriculture probably were the earliest records, Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University. although did not specifically mention about rice fields. Van der Kroef (1963) gave a thorough debate on predicaments and outlook on the economy of rice. In an attempt to provide Production and hosting by Elsevier spatial distribution of rice fields on higher resolution, optical 1658-077X ª 2012 King Saud University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2012.05.002 28 D.R. Panuju et al. remote sensing data have been employed to some extent using which contain demographic data, production, yield, area, supervised classification (Panuju et al., 2007a) or autonomous price, import, and export of paddy and also spatial distribu- technique (Panuju et al., 2007b). Both techniques could be used tion of irrigation networks were employed. All FAO data were for routine monitoring at fairly reliable accuracy. Another pa- accessed from FAO website (www.fao.org) on March 2012. per used a radar sensor to minimize atmospheric effects such as Time frame of FAO was fairly different; some data were cap- cloud, hence produced a better rice field map (Raimadoya etal., tured from 1961 to 2009, and the others were between 1980 2007). and 2011. Moreover, seed varieties were obtained from the Despite its importance, tremendous land conversion has cooperative website of Indonesian research institutes and been occurring. For regions which have been the most produc- International Rice Research Institutes (IRRI) (www. tive areas such as the Northern Coastal Region (NCR), spe- knowledgebank.irri.org). cific reports on land use changes were presented including a Computation of differences, ratios, and growth was calcu- paper by Firman (1997) for West Java NCR and a thesis by lated on some variables based on FAO estimation. In this Damayanti (2003) on East Java NCR. The modelling of land analysis, the difference in production and consumption was use change in Java was also presented (Verburg et al., 1999). utilized as a measure of surplus-production, while ratio be- Reports of Firman (1997) and Damayanti (2003) specifi- tween production and consumption was employed as a mea- cally mentioned the importance of the anthropogenic factor sure of sufficiency. The growth was employed particularly to on agricultural land conversion. This includes urbanization explore production increase due to the release of paddy varie- and economical imbalance between rural and urban or, in a ties introduced at the corresponding time. The estimation of wider scale, Java and other islands. On the other hand, natural differences, ratios and growth was based on the following causes might drive the alteration. Rice production in Indonesia equations: has been found to be vulnerable of climate change and adap- D ¼ X À Y ð1Þ tation strategies on irrigation, biotechnology and selection of xy alternative crops are necessary (Naylor et al., 2007). Exclu- X Rx;y ¼ ð2Þ sively in Sidoarjo region (East Java NCR), an additional Y X À X thread of expanding mud flow upon a failure of mining activity DX ¼ ðt1Þ ðt0Þ Ã 100% ð3Þ might affect the overall rice production in the region. Xðt0Þ Nonetheless, contemporary discussion about the histori- where, cally active rice production is lacking, especially on a broader scale. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate the Dxy = difference of production (X) and consumption (Y) historical perspective of the dynamics of rice production in Rx,y = ratio between production and consumption Indonesia. This would lead to a better understanding of com- DX = growth of variable x on corresponding time lag plexities in the production as required of improved policy anal- (between t0 and t1) ysis. Both physical and socio-economic aspects are discussed in following subsections. Statistical data analysis was employed to understand the relationship among variables related to paddy production 2. Data and analysis and its productivity, particularly to understand the role of irri- gation and seed inventions to production. Using the Pearson 2.1. Spatial data correlation, relationships among of variables including land use, demographic, production, yield, irrigated area and num- In this research, physical characteristics of rice production ber of inventions on rice varieties were investigated. It was as- were explored through land capability map. The map was sumed that those relationships were linear. Pearson correlation derived from a set of Indonesian land system map called coefficient was computed using the following equation: X RePPProT (Regional Physical Planning Program for Transmi- n ½xi À x½y À y gration) dated 1985 accessible through BAKOSURTANAL rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffii¼1 i rxy ¼ noX noX ð4Þ (Indonesian National Coordinating Agency for Surveys and n 2 n 2 ½xi À x ½y À y Mapping). The RePPPRoT map is a reconnaissance-scale i¼1 i¼1 i (1:250,000) dataset derived from a combined field survey, aer- where ial photographs and satellite imageries, primarily employed to support transmigration policies. Physical properties of land r = correlation coefficient between variable x and y used to obtain land capability were soil (at the level of great xy x or y = value of variable x or y in sample i, where i =1, soil group), terrain (slope) and average of annual rainfall. i i 2, 3,...., n x or y = average of variable x or y 2.2. Statistical data analysis To analyse the role of seed inventions on production, yield, For time-series analysis, primary data were taken from com- and harvested area in Indonesia, three-year production was mon sources such as Food and Agriculture Organization averaged and then correlated with the number of paddy varie- (FAO), International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Rice Re- ties released in the period. Due to insufficient data, this re- search Institute of Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture (Balai search only concentrated on lowland (sawah) and rainfed Penelitian Padi Departemen Pertanian) and Indonesian Statis- (gogo) varieties, although tidal (pasang surut) varieties and hy- tical Agency (Badan Pusat Statistik). The FAO databases brid varieties have also been released. The dynamics of rice production in Indonesia 1961–2009 29 3. Results and discussion