UNIT 2 FOUNDATION, EXPANSION AND Trends in History Writing CONSOLIDATION OF DELHI SULTANATE* Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Conflict and Consolidation 1206-1290 2.3 The Mongol Problem 2.4 Political Consequences of the Turkish Conquest of India 2.5 Expansion under the Khaljis 2.5.1 West and Central India 2.5.2 Northwest and North India 2.5.3 Deccan and Southward Expansion 2.6 Expansion under the Tughlaqs 2.6.1 The South 2.6.2 East India 2.6.3 Northwest and North 2.7 Nature of State 2.8 Summary 2.9 Keywords 2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 2.11 Suggested Readings 2.12 Instructional Video Recommendations 2.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this Unit, you should be able to: • understand the formative and most challenging period in the history of the Delhi Sultanate, • analyse the Mongol problem, • list the conflicts, nature, and basis of power of the class that ran the Sultanate, • valuate the territorial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century in the north, north-west and north-east, and • explain the Sultanate expansion in the south. 2.1 INTRODUCTION The tenth century witnessed a westward movement of a warlike nomadic people inhabiting the eastern corners of the Asian continent. Then came in wave upon * Dr. Iftikhar Ahmad Khan, Department of History, M.S. University, Baroda; Prof. Ravindra Kumar, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University and Dr. Nilanjan Sankar, Fellow, School of Orinental and African Studies, London. The present Unit is taken from th th IGNOU Course EHI-03: India: From 8 to 15 Century, Block 4, Units 13, 14 & 15 and MHI-04: 31 Political Structures in India, Block 3, Unit 8, ‘State under the Delhi Sultanate’. Political Structures wave, each succeeding invasion more powerful and more extensive than the last. In a relatively short span of time, the barbarian hordes had overrun and brought down the once prosperous empires and kingdoms of Central and West Asia, reaching the shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. While between the tenth and twelfth centuries the invaders were primarily ‘Turks’, the invasion of the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries involved a kindred but more ferocious people, the Mongols. Map 2.1: Central Asia during the tenth and eleventh centuries Source: EHI-03: India: From 8th to 15th Century, Block 4, Units 13, p. 11 Turks and Mongols The Turks and Mongols were the product of deserts and steppes that encircle Central Asia in a massive area, extending north and east of Transoxiana. More specifically, they descended from the mass of nomads who roamed in the area of the Altai mountains, south of Lake Baikal-regions that are now part of outer Mongolia. They had a primitive mobile civilization based on tribal organization and ownership of herds of cattle, sheep and horses. In addition, the tribes often possessed camels, mules and asses. The animals supplied most of the essential needs of the nomad in terms of food, clothing and shelter. Milk and flesh gave nourishment. The hide of animals was used as clothing, and also to make tents, yurts, in which they lived (For further details, see BHIC-102, Unit 11). Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasions of India at the close of the tenth century, followed some hundred years later by the Ghorian invasions (both Ghazni and Ghor are in Afghanistan) were distant projections of these vast nomadic movements. As in other parts of Asia, the Turkish irruption in India culminated in the formation of an independent political entity; the Delhi Sultanate in the early years of the thirteenth century. The term ‘Delhi Sultanate’ signifies the rule of Turks over large parts of Northern India from their capital at Delhi. In more than two centuries of existence, the Sultanate gave birth to institutions – political, social and economic – which though greatly different from the ones existing earlier, were a unique combination of what the Turks had brought with and what they found in India. In political and military terms, the invasions of Mahmud of Ghaznia were the actual precursors of the Delhi Sultanate (For further details, see BHIC-132, Unit 12). 32 In this Unit we will be looking at the conquest of India by the Turks, leading Foundation, Expansion th and Consolidation of to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13 century. Delhi Sultanate After military conquests, the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate set themselves on the track of consolidating the Sultanate. 2.2 CONFLICT AND CONSOLIDATION 1206-1290 The period from 1206 to 1290 constitutes the formative and the most challenging period in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. It was marked by a prolonged, multi- cornered conflict within the Ghorian ruling class as well as against the renewed Rajput resurgence. Map 2.2: Northern India on the Eve of Ghorid Invasions Source: EHI-03: India: From 8th to 15th Century, Block 4, Units 14, p. 24 Muhammad Ghori’s sudden death in 1206 resulted in a tussle for supremacy among his three important generals, Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha and Qutbuddin Aibak. Yalduz held Karman and Sankuran on the route between Afghanistan and upper Sind. Qubacha held the important charge of Uchh, while Aibak had already been deputed as the ‘viceroy’ of Muhammad Ghori and the overall commander of the army in India. Though, technically still a slave, the title of sultan was conferred upon him soon after the death of his master. The formal establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, as an entity in its own rights, is traced back to this event. Subsequent developments made this a reality. Early in his brief reign of four years, Aibak (d. 1210) moved his capital to Lahore in order to frustrate Yalduz’s ambition of annexing Punjab. With the Khwarizm Shah steadily advancing on Ghor, there was partly a compulsion in Yalduz’s attempt to establish himself in India. 33 Political Structures Aibak was succeeded on the throne by his son-in-law Iltutmish who brought back the capital to Delhi. Large portions of the territories conquered by the Turks had slipped out of control and subjugated Rajput chieftain had ‘withheld tribute and repudiated allegiance’. Iltutmish’s quarter century reign (1210-1236) was distinguished by a concerted drive to re-establish the Sultanate authority on areas that had been lost. In 1215, Yalduz was defeated at Tarain and in 1217 Iltutmish wrested the province of Lahore from Qubacha and placed it under his own governor. Within three years of this event, the Mongols, under Chenghiz Khan’s leadership, appeared on the banks of the Indus in pursuit of Jalaluddin Mangbarni (the son of the Khwarizmian ruler) who had taken refuge in Punjab. Henceforth, the Mongols remained a constant factor among the concerns of Delhi Sultans. We will discuss Mongol intrusions during the 13-14th century in the subsequent Section. Though, the Mongol presence had upset Iltutmish’s plan of consolidation on the north-west, it also created conditions for the destruction of Qubacha who held Uchh and faced the brunt of Mangbarni’s invasion. As a consequence, lltutmish was able to seize Bhatinda, Kuhram, and Sarsuti. About 1228, he launched two- pronged attack on Multan and Uchh. Defeated, Qubacha drowned himself in the Indus. Unified control over the north-west now became possible for the Delhi Sultanate. In Rajputana, the Turks were able to reclaim Ranthambhor, Mandor, Jalor, Bayana and Thangir. After 1225, Iltutmish could turn towards the east. Apart from sporadic military successes, however, Lakhnauti (in Bengal) and Bihar continued to evade the authority of the Sultanate. Iltutmish’s death saw more sharpened factionalism and intrigue among the Turks. In a period of some thirty years, four rulers (descendants of Iltutmish) occupied the throne. The most prominent group, to decide the course of high politics during these years is identified as theturkan-i chihilgani bandagan Shamsi (the ‘forty’ Turkish slave ‘officers’ of Iltutmish). The fourteenth century historian, Ziauddin Barani, has left behind concise and insightful account of these critical years: During the reign of Shamsuddin – (Iltutmish),... owing to the presence of peerless maliks, wazirs...educated, wise and capable, the court of the Sultan (Shamsuddin) had become stable...But after the death of the Sultan...his ‘forty’ Turkish slaves got the upper hand...So owing to the supremacy of the Turkish slave officers, all these men of noble birth...were destroyed under various pretexts during the reigns of the successors of Shamsuddin... In the main, Barani’s account is borne out by contemporary developments. During 1235-1265 political developments revolved round a conflict between the crown and a military aristocracy determined to retain its privileged position with the balance often increasingly tilting in favour of the latter. In these circumstances, the very survival of the Sultanate was under question. Political instability was exacerbated by the recalcitrance of smaller Rajput chiefs and local leaders. Moreover, the Mongols were constantly active in and around Punjab. The accession of Balban in 1265 provided the Sultanate with an iron-willed ruler. Balban addressed himself to two major objectives: i) to raise the prestige of the crown through elaborate court ceremonials, and inculcation of Sasanian traditions that distanced the ruler from ordinary folks, converting him into a symbol of awe; ii) consolidating Turkish power: rebellions were put down with determination 34 and administrative procedures were streamlined. After the death of Balban, struggle for the throne started. Balban had nominated Foundation, Expansion and Consolidation of Kai Khusrau, son of Muhammad (Balban’s eldest son) but the nobles helped Delhi Sultanate Kaiqubad, son of Bughra Khan, to ascend the throne.