University of North Dakota UND Scholarly Commons Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects January 2020 Policewomen: College Students’ Perceptions Of Women In Policing Adrian Martinez Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.und.edu/theses Recommended Citation Martinez, Adrian, "Policewomen: College Students’ Perceptions Of Women In Policing" (2020). Theses and Dissertations. 3284. https://commons.und.edu/theses/3284 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects at UND Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UND Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. POLICEWOMEN: COLLEGE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF WOMEN IN POLICING by Adrian Raymond Martinez Bachelor of Arts, Regis University, 2009 Master of Arts, University of Nevada Las Vegas, 2010 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of North Dakota in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Grand Forks, North Dakota August 2020 Copyright 2020 Adrian Martinez This dissertation, submitted by Adrian Martinez in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of North Dakota, has been read by the Faculty Advisory Committee under whom the work has been done and is hereby approved. _______________________________________ Dr. Adam Matz _______________________________________ Dr. Martin Gottschalk _______________________________________ Dr. Roni Mayzer _______________________________________ Dr. Michael Meyer _______________________________________ Dr. Heather Terrell This dissertation is being submitted by the appointed advisory committee as having met all of the requirements of the School of Graduate Studies at the University of North Dakota and is hereby approved. ____________________________________ Chris Nelson Dean of the School of Graduate Studies ____________________________________ Date PERMISSION Title Policewomen: College Students’ Perceptions of Women in Policing Department Criminal Justice Degree Doctor of Philosophy In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a graduate degree from the University of North Dakota, I agree that the library of this University shall make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copying for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor who supervised my dissertation work or, in his absence, by the Chairperson of the department or the dean of the School of Graduate Studies. It is understood that any copying or publication or other use of this dissertation or part thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of North Dakota in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my dissertation. Adrian Martinez 2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... ix INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 7 Historical Overview of Women in the Workforce ............................................................................... 7 Women in Policing ........................................................................................................................... 28 Historical Overview of Women in Policing .................................................................................. 28 Perceptions of Women in Policing ............................................................................................... 44 College Students’ Perceptions of Women in Policing .................................................................. 47 METHODS ........................................................................................................................................... 55 Setting for the Study ......................................................................................................................... 55 Sample .............................................................................................................................................. 56 Instrument ......................................................................................................................................... 57 Analysis Plan .................................................................................................................................... 61 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................................. 71 Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 71 Frequencies ...................................................................................................................................... 72 Factor Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...84 T-tests ............................................................................................................................................... 86 ANOVA ............................................................................................................................................. 96 Multiple Regression .......................................................................................................................... 98 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................................... 112 Study Comparisons ......................................................................................................................... 112 External Perceptions ...................................................................................................................... 122 Limitations ...................................................................................................................................... 133 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 137 Practical Implications .................................................................................................................... 137 Policy Implications ......................................................................................................................... 140 Future Research ............................................................................................................................. 141 Final Thoughts ............................................................................................................................... 142 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 145 LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 1 Survey Demographics ................................................................................................ 58 Table 2 Attitudinal Items ........................................................................................................ 60 Table 3 2006 Descriptive Statistics for each Attitudinal Item ................................................ 73 Table 4 2015 Descriptive Statistics for each Attitudinal Item ................................................ 75 Table 5 2006 Descriptive Statistics by Major, Gender, Age, and Class Level ....................... 77 Table 6 2015 Descriptive Statistics by Major, Gender, Age, and Class Level ....................... 80 Table 7 2006 and 2015 Descriptive Statistics for Criminal Justice Majors by Gender .......... 83 Table 8 Factor Loadings for Exploratory Analysis with Varimax Rotation ........................... 85 Table 9 2006 T-Test Analysis with Major .............................................................................. 87 Table 10 2006 T-Test Analysis with Gender .......................................................................... 89 Table 11 2015 T-Test Analysis with Major ............................................................................ 91 Table 12 2015 T-Test Analysis with Gender .......................................................................... 93 Table 13 2006 Multiple Regression Analysis with Attitudinal Items 1, 2, and 3 ................... 99 Table 14 2006 Multiple Regression Analysis with Attitudinal Items 4, 5, and 6 ................. 101 Table 15 2006 Multiple Regression Analysis with Attitudinal Items 7, 8, and 9 ................. 102 Table 16 2015 Multiple Regression Analysis with Attitudinal Items 1, 2, and 3 ................. 106 Table 17 2015 Multiple Regression Analysis with Attitudinal Items 4, 5, and 6 ................. 108 Table 18 2015 Multiple Regression Analysis