REGIMES, REFORM, AND RACE: THE POLITICS OF CHARTER SCHOOL GROWTH AND SUSTAINABILITY IN HARLEM by Basil A. Smikle Jr. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy under the Executive Committee of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2019 © 2019 Basil A. Smikle Jr. All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT REGIMES, REFORM, AND RACE: THE POLITICS OF CHARTER SCHOOL GROWTH AND SUSTAINABILITY IN HARLEM By Basil A. Smikle Jr. The complex and thorny relationship betWeen school-district leaders, sub-city political and community figures and teachers’ unions on the subject of charter schools- an interaction fraught with racially charged language and tactics steeped in civil rights-era mobilization - elicits skepticism about the motives of education reformers and their vieW of minority populations. In this study I unpack the local politics around tacit and overt racial appeals in support of NeW York City charter schools with particular attention to Harlem, NeW York and periods when the sustainability of these schools, and long-term education reforms, were endangered by changes in the political and legislative landscape. This dissertation ansWers tWo key questions: How did the Bloomberg-era governing coalition and charter advocates in NeW York City use their political influence and resources to expand and sustain charter schools as a sector; and how does a community with strong historic and cultural narratives around race, education and political activism, respond to attempts to enshrine externally organized school reforms? To ansWer these questions, I employ a case study analysis and rely on Regime Theory to tell the story of the Mayoral administration of Michael Bloomberg and the cadre of charter leaders, philanthropies and wealthy donors whose collective activity created a climate for growth of the sector. I then construct a lens through which we may vieW African American leadership as having varied temporal and philosophical associations to the civil rights movement, shedding light on how some, with stronger ties to the business community, may be amenable to school choice policies. Results show that a pro-charter regime in NeW York City rapidly expanded the sector using colocation and through attempts to elect charter-friendly members of the state legislature, through direct campaign donations and targeted parent organizing. While the latter largely failed as a means to obtain electoral influence, a shift in tactics enabled charter leaders to keep pro- union Democrats from dominating the charter policy debate. In Harlem, the community’s response was mixed. While demand for seats increased, so did the tension as activists and elected officials expressed concern over loss of traditional public-school spaces which doubled as community-based institutions, and encroachment on their long-held vieW of self-deterministic education policy. Much of the pushback by the community may also be a proxy for the effects of rapid gentrification occurring in the neighborhood, exacerbating tensions over external influence in local communities and a disruption of social capital. Finally, I show that through the loss of political allies at City Hall, in the State legislature, and a reduction in the political theater around parent mobilization, the charter sector locally and nationally may experience slowed growth in terms of charter authorization, public support and applications by potential students. Table of Contents List of Tables iii Acknowledgements v Dedication vi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 The Challenge of Creating Something NeW in Historic Spaces 2 FrameWork of the Dissertation 12 Chapter 2: Regimes, African American Leadership and the Emergence of Charter Schools: A Theoretical and Contextual RevieW 15 History Matters: Path Dependence and Education Reform 17 Bringing in Political Trust 22 Pro-Development Leaders and the Marketization of Education 23 African American Politics and Leadership Cohorts 27 Charter Schools on the National and Local Stage 36 Civic Capacity and Parent Engagement Around School Choice 45 Charters Come to NeW York 49 The Education Mayor 51 An Open Seat and Concerns over Sustainability 59 Chapter 3: Research Questions and Methodology 63 Background 63 Impetus for the Study and Research Questions 64 Location of the Study 67 Geographic Boundaries 70 i Qualitative Research and Data Collection 71 IntervieW Recruitment Protocol 72 Purposeful Sampling 72 Recruitment of Charter Advocates and Government Leaders 78 Campaign Finance Data 81 Analysis of NeWspaper Articles 82 Chapter 4: Charter School Growth and Sustainability in Harlem 85 Early Political and Parent Organizing 85 Demographic Changes Alter the Landscape 93 Sisulu Walker and the Early Days of School Choice in Harlem 96 An “Education Entrepreneur” 99 The Biggest Charter Footprint 101 Local Investment for Mutual Benefit 102 Comprehensive Education Uptown 104 The Attraction for Parents 108 Trouble on the Horizon 114 Pro-Charter Campaigns for the State Senate 122 Change in Tactics 130 A NeW Political Paradigm 135 Chapter 5: Discussion & Implications for Policy and Practice 142 Gentrification, Social Capital, and Civic Engagement 146 A NeW Cohort of Black Political Leaders 154 Education Reform and Charter Sustainability 155 References: 164 ii Appendix A: Charter Schools in Harlem by School District 180 Appendix B: State Senate NeWspaper Endorsements in the NeW York Post and NeW York Daily NeWs 182 Appendix C: IntervieW Protocol 186 iii List of Tables Table 1: Regime Typologies 16 Table 2: Classification of IntervieW Participants 80 Table 3: Framing Codes for Media Analysis 83 Table 4: School Choice Articles Appearing in 3 NeW York Daily NeWspapers 2010-1014 123 Table5: Campaign Donations to 3 Pro-Charter Candidates for State Senate In 2010 125 Table 6: 2010 Democratic State Senate Primary Results in Select Districts 127 iv List of Acknowledgements Words cannot express how grateful I am to Professor Jeff Henig whose wise counsel and patience since our first meeting during the application process, and throughout this journey, enabled me to fulfill a dream for myself and my family. Many thanks to Professor Amy Wells for Chairing my defense and offering invaluable support and guidance. Thank you, Professors Priscilla Wohlstetter and Sonya Horsford, for helping me put tWo issues I care deeply about – race and education – into words that have meaning and impact. I have known Professors Ester Fuchs and Bill Eimicke for 25 years since my days as a student in the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia. I first expressed an interest in obtaining a PhD to them, and they graciously offered to Write my recommendations. Without them, my career in politics, policy and academia Would have been nearly impossible to achieve! Finally, I want to thank Gosia Kolb and Sherene Alexander in the EPSA office for alWays being supportive. v Dedication To my mother, father and grandmother who came to this country with nothing, so I could have everything. vi CHapter 1 INTRODUCTION That which commends the charter school movement to such a daunting task is the diversity of the personnel it has attracted to its ranks: former teachers, clergy, social change activists, laWyers, philanthropists, community organizers and parents of school-age children (Bounds & Walker, 2014). -Rev. Dr. Wyatt Tee Walker Charter schools emerged as the latest form of school choice marketed largely to economically disadvantaged households, but their presence has often roiled the politics of education at the national, state, district and neighborhood levels. Originally framed as rejections of the highly placed-based traditional public schools, the broader discussion of charters has downplayed the relationship betWeen charter schools, the particular places in which they are located and the local politics they engender. This dissertation explores the notion that oftentimes in evaluations of public policy, process can be just as important as outcomes. As charters began to take root in neighborhoods like Harlem With narratives inextricably tied to race, residents already anxious about rapid demographic changes wrestled With the political and social ramifications of charter growth even while demand for seats remains high. 1 The CHallenge of Creating Something New in Historic Spaces C.B.J. Snyder became NeW York City’s Superintendent of School Buildings in 1891 and his innovative H-shaped designs allowed light and air to flow freely, creating functional spaces (Cutler, 1989) meant to be “architectural centerpieces of the neighborhoods in which they were built”. 1 Snyder’s modernizations echoed a common theme of school construction at the time Which admonished architects to: Let the school building, then, be solidly constructed…let it be cheerful and attractive with-out and within, well placed and supplied with adequate playgrounds and pleasant surrounding and it will be not only a source of pride, but a blessing to the community 2 One of Snyder’s schools, The Wadleigh High School for Girls, opened in 1902 on 114th Street in Harlem betWeen 7th and 8th Avenues (now known as Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Blvd. and Frederick Douglass Blvd respectively) and is beloved among Harlem residents. The impressive structure Was named for Lydia F. Wadleigh, a pioneer in education for women (Gill, 2011) Who became principal of the “old Girls High School” on 12th Street in Greenwich Village amid bitter opposition to her insistence that more institutions provide formal education to Women.3 1 NeW York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. July 26, 1994 Retrieved from http://neighborhoodpreservationcenter.org/db/bb_files/Wadleigh-High-School-For-Girls.pdf (page 4) 2 Hamlin, A. D. F. (1909). Consideration in School House Design. The American Architect (1909-1921), 96(1770), 226. Page 230 3 Honor Teacher’s Memory (February 7, 1904) New York Times Retrieved from https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1904/02/07/120283834.pdf 2 Construction of Wadleigh began toward the end of Harlem’s building boom in the late 1800s When German, Irish and Italian residents formed a solid majority, and the Catholic Church established seven parishes to accommodate these populations.