A new generation of wireless Current State broadband network technologies that radically cut the cost of expanding coverage to rural areas Ground-based networks are challenged to provide ICT-enabled service in rural areas of developing countries, because the network economics of conventional wired or cellular technologies that work for urban areas, which are typically Associated 50BT Chapters densely populated, do not translate well to sparsely populated rural areas. Ground-based technologies require disproportionately more infrastructure to providing connectivity to rural inhabitants than for the same number of people in urban areas, including towers, base stations, backhaul and electricity provision (through the grid or o-grid options like diesel generators). Aerial platforms, whether based on satellites or atmospheric vehicles, could radically improve the economics of rural broadband coverage. A high platform allows greater spans of the network, and operates wirelessly over large distances with equipment that costs less and uses less energy. A growing alternative for digital communication is to use satellites in orbit SDG Alignment around the Earth. A large number of such satellites are required to provide continuous coverage. Although low- and medium-Earth orbit (LEO and MEO) services are becoming increasingly commercially available, they are still too expensive for widespread use. In 2018, SpaceX received approval from the United States Federal Communications Commission to deploy 4,425 low-Earth orbit broadband satellites, as well as 7,518 very-low Earth orbit (VLEO) non-geostationary broadband satellites. Once deployed, these satellites are expected to boost capacity and reduce latency. However, the business model regarding these SpaceX satellites, and their Impact relevance to digital inclusion for low-income populations, remain unclear. Yet another approach is to use aerial equipment in the stratosphere, for example with balloons or drones. Using balloons at altitudes of 18 to 25 kilometers to provide internet connectivity to rural areas via wireless links is the goal of Loon LLC, a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. Apart from short pilots in Brazil, Peru and elsewhere, the technology has not reached the desired scale of impact. Commercial Attractiveness Facebook has also experimented with solar-powered Regardless of which technology is used, there is clear drones at altitudes of about 20 kilometers to provide need for scaling up the infrastructure and human data connectivity using infrared lasers. Their aircraft resources. In addition, even as the technologies are Aquila had a successful first test flight in 2016, being developed, there are no proven business powered by onboard solar cells. models. Therefore, deployment will be CHALLENGING. The drone has a wingspan of 42 meters but weighs only 450 kilograms. However, despite successful technology demonstrations, the project has not been implemented in practice at any locations so far. Even as such technologies are becoming market-ready, there will be a number of deployment challenges. Many countries have regulatory constraints on the use of the radio frequency spectrum. Some technologies are very capital intensive, with significant risk of failure and loss. Breakthrough 40: Diculty of deployment Extremely Challenging Challenging Complex Feasible Simple Policies Infrastructure Human Access to Behaviour Existing Market Business model capital user finance change demand fragmentation/ innovation Distribution channels Highly regulated Low-moderate No behaviour change market with policy Moderate fragmentation need for human required change required of customers, capital under-developed development channels Requires moderate Limited financing Existing demand Deployment model(s) improvements to required being tested; major infrastructure hurdles outstanding.