Sites of remembrance and forgetting: New media (re)constructions of distinct Ndebele collective memory and history in the context of hegemonic Zimbabwean Nationalism By Mphathisi Ndlovu Dissertation presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Journalism) at Stellenbosch University Journalism Department Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Supervisor: Dr Gabriël Botma December 2016 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za i DECLARATION By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. December 2016 Copyright © 2016 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ii ABSTRACT This study examines new media reconstructions of Ndebele collective memory and history in the context of hegemonic Zimbabwean Nationalism. Situated within the overlapping fields of cultural studies, journalism and media studies, the research explores the possibilities of news websites as liberatory spaces for ethnic minorities, such as the Ndebele people, to recollect, mediate and circulate their historical narratives that have been marginalised and suppressed in the dominant nationalist spheres. Given that new media have been lauded as counter- hegemonic sites that promote political participation, civic engagement and social change, this study contributes to these scholarly engagements by examining how Ndebele people are appropriating three news websites (Newzimbabwe.com, Bulawayo24.com and Umthwakazireview.com) to resurrect, preserve and commemorate their repressed historical memories. In focusing on a Ndebele community that is haunted by traumatic memories of the state-orchestrated post-colonial violence, this study probes how new media are empowering the subjugated communities to recount, mediate and share their memories of past events that remain occluded, repressed and criminalised in official discourses. This research is premised on a social constructionist understanding that the media do not reflect a reality “out there”, but rather construct our knowledge of the social world. Drawing upon theoretical insights from cultural studies, this study examines how Ndebele communities employ new media artefacts to construct, in other words, their lived experiences, and to reconstruct their historical imaginations. This study is framed within a qualitative methodology, as the aim was to explore meaning-making practices in cyberspace. The Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA), a strand of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), was selected as a method for analysing how language use serves to reproduce and challenge asymmetrical power relations amongst social groups. Data was selected purposively from three news websites, and genres such as editorials, opinion pieces, discussion forums, YouTube videos and readers’ comments were analysed to make sense of the reconstructions of Ndebele public memories. The research findings indicate that Ndebele people are employing new media to recollect, preserve and transmit their pre-colonial and post-colonial memories in ways that not only repudiate hegemonic Zimbabwean Nationalism, but also contribute to the resurgence of Ndebele secessionist imaginations. Thus, new media are sites of memory that are not only transforming and democratising the processes of narrating, preserving and disseminating historical memories, but also are reinvigorating and heightening Ndebele nationalism. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za iii OPSOMMING Hierdie studie ondersoek konstruksies van Ndebele- kollektiewe herinneringe en geskiedenis in nuwemedia-tekste teen die agtergrond van hegemoniese Zimbabwiese Nasionalisme. Die studie is geposisioneer in die oorvleuelende velde van kultuurstudies, joernalistiek en media- studies ten einde die moontlikheid te ondersoek dat internetwebwerwe kan optree as bevrydende ruimtes vir etniese minderhede, soos die Ndebele, waar historiese narratiewe wat in die dominante nasionale areas gemarginaliseer en onderdruk is, versamel, bemiddel en versprei kan word. Hierdie studie dra by tot aktuele akademiese debatte deur ondersoek in te stel na hoe Ndebeles gebruik maak van drie nuus-webwerwe, naamlik Newzimbabwe.com, Bulawayo24.com en Umthwakazireview.com, om hulle onderdrukte historiese herinneringe te laat ontwaak, bewaar en gedenk. Deur te fokus op die Ndebele-gemeenskap, by wie traumatiese herinneringe van staatsgeorkestreerde postkoloniale geweld spook, probeer hierdie studie vasstel hoe nuwe media onderdrukte gemeenskappe kan bemagtig. Die navorsing is gebaseer op ’n sosiaal konstruksionistiese begrip dat die media nie die realiteit “daar buite” weerkaats nie, maar eerder ons kennis van die sosiale wêreld konstrueer. Deur te put uit teoretiese insigte van kultuurstudies, ondersoek die studie hoe die Ndebele-gemeenskap artefakte in nuwe media gebruik om sin te maak van hulle ondervindinge en om hul historiese verbeelding te herkonstrueer. Die navorsingsontwerp is kwalitatief omdat die doel was om die konstruksie van betekenis in die kuberruimte te ondersoek. Die diskoers-historiese benadering, ʼn variasie van kritiese diskoersanalise, is gebruik om vas te stel hoe taalgebruik funksioneer om ongelyke magsverhoudings tussen sosiale groepe te reproduseer en uit te daag. Data is doelbewus van die drie nuus-webwerwe geselekteer, en genres soos redaksionele kommentaar, meningstukke, gespreksforums, YouTube-video’s en leserskommentaar is ontleed om sin te maak van die rekonstruksies van die openbare herinneringe van Ndebeles. Die bevindings dui aan dat Ndebeles die nuwemedia-platforms gebruik om pre- en post- koloniale herinneringe te versamel, te bewaar en te versprei op wyses wat nie slegs die hegemoniese Zimbabwiese Nasionalisme uitdaag nie, maar ook lei tot die herlewing van Ndebele- separatistiese verbeeldings. Die nuwe media verskaf dus plekke van herinnering wat nie net die prosesse van vertelling, bewaring en verspreiding van historiese verbeelding demokratiseer nie, maar ook aan Ndebele- kollektiewe bewussyn nuwe energie en stukrag verleen. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za iv DEDICATION In loving memory of my niece, Zinhle Ncube, and my nephew, Methembe Ndlovu. You left this world too soon. “They shall not grow old, as we that are left grow old: Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn. At the going down of the sun and in the morning, We will remember them” - Laurence Binyon Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I am thankful to my God, for His divine providence. My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr Gabriël Botma, for his invaluable scholarly insights, guidance and motivation. This academic journey would not have been completed without his wise counsel and tremendous dedication to my research. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to the lecturers at Stellenbosch University’s Journalism department, Prof Lizette Rabe, Prof Simphiwe Sesanti, Prof George Claassen and Marenet Jordaan, for their brilliant insights and encouragement. I also owe special thanks to the administrative staff at the department, Elizabeth Newman and Lijuan Williams-Daniels, for their kindness and cheerfulness. I am forever indebted to my father and mother, for instilling in me, from an early age, a passion for scholarly pursuits. I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my sisters, Hlali, Hloni, Sehli, Nompilo and Sibusiso, for their unending love, sterling support and unshakeable confidence in me. I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Hloni, for providing accommodation during the course of my dissertation writing. To my nephews and nieces, Gugu, Noma, Nontombi, Philani, Albert and Michael, thank you for bringing joy in my life. I am immensely indebted to the Graduate School in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University, for the generous scholarship that enabled me to undertake this study. I am deeply thankful to my colleagues in the Journalism department, Nabila Hatimy, Dr Anthony Gunde, Sibongile Mpofu, Adrian Baillie-Stewart and Irene Wamae, for their encouragement, optimism and companionship. Adrian was kind enough to assist me with the technical aspects of editing this thesis. I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to Dr Gugulethu Siziba, Charles Dube, Hellen Venganai, David Yenjela, Matshediso Mosinki and Nelson Manabile, for their friendship and support. I am also deeply grateful to Rozanne Adams and Lelethu Shayi, for the lively and unforgettable discussions during our train rides. Chelesani Moyo, Abigail Tshuma and Khanyile Mlotshwa deserve mention for constantly encouraging me to complete this academic journey. I am greatly indebted to NaTanya and Tatjiwana, for their assistance when I was in Harare applying for a study visa. I would also like to convey my sincere thanks to the Presbyterian churches (Entumbane and Goodwood) for the kindness and encouragement. Finally, I am profoundly grateful to Imelda Moyo, for her unflinching support and unwavering faith in me. Thank you for being my pillar of strength. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................