DEVOTION TO TĀRĀ IN TANGUT BUDDHISM —BASED ON AN ART EXPLORATION OF TĀRĀ MURALS IN DUNHUANG CAVES A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Religious Studies at University of the West In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies By Xiaoyang Zhang May 2021 Approval Page for Graduate Approved and recommended for acceptance as a dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies. Xiaoyang Zhang Candidate May 4, 2021 Devotion to Tārā in Tangut Buddhism —Based on An Art Exploration of Tārā Murals in Dunhuang Caves APPROVED: Darui Long May 10, 2021 Chair Shi Zhiru May 6, 2021 Committee Member Miroj Shakya May 10, 2021 Committee Member I hereby declare that this dissertation has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at any other institution, and that it is entirely my own work. © 2021 Xiaoyang Zhang ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Abstract Devotion to Tārā in Tangut Buddhism —Based on An Art Exploration of Tārā Murals in Dunhuang Caves By Xiaoyang Zhang This dissertation aims to reveal Tangut Buddhists’ devotion to Tārā through a detailed art analysis of Tārā murals in Tangut caves from the Dunhuang area, together with religious and historical discussions on Tangut Buddhism and the Tangut caves in Dunhuang. Dunhuang was a sacred site for Tangut Buddhists and Tangut-occupied Dunhuang for nearly one and a half centuries. Over eighty caves were created and reconstructed by Tanguts in the Dunhuang area. The three Tārā murals are painted in cave no. 5 and cave no. 2 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves and cave no. 4 at Yulin Caves. The dissertation primarily discusses the significance of the role of Tārā in Tangut Buddhism based on the contents of the three Tārā murals, with supplemental information from the portraits of their patrons and history. Through detailed art analysis of the three Tārā murals, this dissertation also summarizes attributes of Tangut Tantric art to add depth to the understanding of Tangut Tantric art and its history. ii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... v Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Project Description ........................................................................................... 1 1.2 Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 5 1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 6 1.4 Literature Review ............................................................................................. 6 1.5 Methodology .................................................................................................. 21 1.6 Scope of the Study .......................................................................................... 24 Chapter 2. Historical Background ..................................................................................... 26 2.1 History of Tangut ............................................................................................ 26 2.2 Tangut Buddhism ............................................................................................ 32 2.3 The Development of Dunhuang Caves during the Tangut Reign ................... 48 Chapter 3. Tangut Buddhist Art ....................................................................................... 61 3.1 Introduction of Tangut Buddhist Art .............................................................. 61 3.2 Architecture: Temples, Stupas, and Caves ...................................................... 62 3.3 Statues ............................................................................................................. 69 3.4 Paintings .......................................................................................................... 72 3.5 Kesi Painting ................................................................................................... 95 Chapter 4. Tārā Mural in Cave No. 5 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves ...................... 99 4.1 Art Analysis of the Tārā Mural ..................................................................... 101 iii 4.2 Cave No. 5 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves ........................................... 113 4.3 Discussion .................................................................................................... 127 Chapter 5. Tārā Mural in Cave No.2 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves .................... 132 5.1 Art Analysis of the Tārā Mural ..................................................................... 133 5.2 Cave No.2 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves ............................................ 144 5.3 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 158 Chapter 6. Tārā Mural in Cave No.4 at Yulin Caves ...................................................... 161 6.1 Art Analysis of the Tārā Mural ..................................................................... 162 6.2 Cave No. 4 at the Yulin Caves ...................................................................... 168 6.3 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 176 Chapter 7. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 180 7.1 The Three Tārā Murals .................................................................................. 180 7.2 Tangut Tantric Buddhist Art ......................................................................... 184 7.3 Tārā in Tangut Tantric Buddhism ................................................................. 187 7.4 Limitations .................................................................................................... 188 7.5 Expected Contribution ................................................................................... 189 7.6 Suggestion for Future Studies ....................................................................... 190 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 191 iv List of Figures 1 Green Tārā Mural in Cave no. 5 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves .................... 2 1a Green Tārā Mural in Cave no. 5 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves (details) .. 101 2 Green Tārā Mural in Cave no. 2 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves .................... 3 2a. Green Tārā Mural in Cave no. 5 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves (details) .. 133 3 Green Tārā Mural in Cave no. 4 at Yulin Caves ..................................................... 4 3a Green Tārā Mural in Cave no. 4 at Yulin Caves (details) ................................... 162 4 Green Tārā Kesi Painting of Xixia ........................................................................ 96 4a Green Tārā Kesi Painting of Xixia (details) ........................................................ 104 5. Green Tārā Painting of Central Tibet (third quarter of the thirteenth century) ... 103 6 Green Tārā Painting of Central Tibet (second half of the eleventh century) ...... 107 7 Green Tārā Painting of Vikramashila Monastery, Bihar, India (ca. 1145) ......... 109 8 Sketch of Two Offering Attends ......................................................................... 137 v Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Project Description This dissertation aims to reveal Tangut Buddhists’ devotion to Tārā through a detailed art analysis of Tārā murals in Tangut caves from the Dunhuang area, together with religious and historical discussions on Tangut Buddhism and the Tangut caves in Dunhuang. Dunhuang was a sacred site for Tangut Buddhists. According to colophons from the Tangut books from Mogao caves, Dunhuang was the "Sacred Mountain of Shazhou” (Shazhou Shenshan, 沙洲神山). More than eighty caves were created and reconstructed by the Tangut in the Dunhuang area. Many highly skilled Tangut Buddhist artworks have been discovered in Dunhuang caves. The three Tārā murals to be discussed are found in cave no. 5 (see figure 1) and cave no. 2 (see figure 2) at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, and in cave no. 4 at Yulin Caves (see figure 3). They are the only cave murals that illustrate Tārā as a principal deity in the Dunhuang area and they were created during the Tangut reign in Dunhuang. Informed by studies on the patron portraits inside the caves, the dissertation reveals the importance of Tārā in Tangut Buddhism. Meanwhile, the discussion also presents Tangut artists’ unique approach to creating images for veneration, which is closely related to the formation and development of Tangut Buddhist art and Tangut Buddhism in general. Therefore, this dissertation also aims to provide evidence and information to add depth to the understanding of Tangut Tantric Buddhist art. 1 Figure 1. Green Tārā mural of Tangut, in cave no. 5 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, China.1 1 Zhang Baoxi 張寶璽 ed., Guazhou dongqianfodong Xixia shiku yishu 瓜州東千佛洞西夏石窟藝術, 203. 2 Figure 2. Green Tārā mural of Tangut, in cave no. 2 at Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, China.2 2 Zhang Baoxi 張寶璽 ed., Guazhou dongqianfodong Xixia shiku yishu