INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS OF THE NDAU PEOPLE OF MANICALAND PROVINCE IN ZIMBABWE: A CASE STUDY OF BOTA RESHUPA TENSON MUYAMBO 214580860 Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the School of Religion, Philosophy and Classics at the UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL Supervisor: Prof. Lilian Cheelo Siwila Co-Supervisor: Dr. Sibusiso Masondo 2018 DECLARATION I, Tenson Muyambo, declare that: The research reported in this thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is my original research; This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university; This thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons; The thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then: a) their words have been re-written, but the general information attributed to them has been referenced; b) where their exact words have been used, their writing has been paragraphed and referenced; c) this thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source being detailed in the thesis and in the References sections. Signed: Date: 30/11/2018 TENSON MUYAMBO (Student Registration Number: 214580860) Supervisors: Prof. Lilian C. Siwila Dr Sibusiso Masondo ------------------------------------------ -------------------------------- As the supervisors, we hereby approve this thesis for submission. ii ABSTRACT Framed from postcolonial and cultural hermeneutics perspectives, this study employs the phenomenological method in conjunction with historical and sociological approaches to investigate the efficacy of IKS of the Ndau of Manicaland province in Zimbabwe. The study is premised on the argument that western knowledge has been accepted as normative despite the existence of other epistemologies worldwide. Using bota reshupa [Ndau herbal porridge] as a case study, the thesis argues that the production of knowledge is not an act of monopolizing a part of humanity but rather, that ownership thereof is the prerogative of every person and every community. Communities generate knowledge that is context-specific but at the same time knowledge can be beneficial to all of humanity. The thesis argued that while it is important to acknowledge power relations in the production of knowledge, it is equally significant to accept that we are living in a poly-epistemic world composed of various knowledges that complement each other. The research findings showed that IKS are used for a variety of reasons. Bota reshupa serves as the primary health care of the Ndau, including defining their identity, rites of passage and expression of their sense of cultural beauty (aesthetics). It was found that shupa serves the socio- cultural as well as the religious spheres of the Ndau. It was also made clear that the romanticising of IKS can be risky. Using cultural hermeneutics as a complementary theory to the postcolonial paradigm, bota reshupa was found to contain some harmful elements such as kuhaza [ excessive nose and mouth bleeding] which affected Ndau males who consumed shupa (a shortened way of saying bota reshupa). Shupa taboos are very strict and any violations of the taboos may result in death if remedial measures are not expeditiously implemented. The thesis argued that despite the negative effects of kuhaza (which can be (re)defined and (re)negotiated), shupa remained and still remains a resource for the Ndau. The practice also demonstrated the centrality and agency of the Ndau women in matters of their health, identity as well as their culture and situation. It was found that Ndau women were the custodians of shupa. They prepared and administered it, thereby women agency. However, using iii cultural hermeneutics lens, it was found that although Ndau women were the custodians of the practice, the real owners of culture are Ndau males. The need for mainstreaming IKS was also emphasised. The need to research, document and preserve IKS, especially in Zimbabwe, was emphasised throughout the thesis. The study called for more in-depth research on IKS, particularly the scientific research on shupa to determine its pharmaceutical compounds, so that Zimbabweans could holistically benefit from shupa. The thesis also called for the creation of frameworks that would enable adequate funding into research on IKS in general and IKS curricula in particular in Zimbabwe. iv DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my late father George-Joseph Mabhuya Muyambo and my mother, Gosho Muyambo, whose yearning for formal education, though they never attended any formal school themselves, found fulfilment in me. I remember them insisting that I run to school bare-foot to obtain my formal education. I humbly thank them for their astute vision, despite growing up in a community that lacked enthusiasm for formal education. This thesis is also dedicated to the Ndau people of south-eastern Zimbabwe for tenaciously holding onto their indigenous knowledge which, among other things, is the wellspring of their existence. I salute them! v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend my sincere thanks to the following people, whose invaluable support and assistance have made it possible to complete this work: • My deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Lilian Siwila and Dr. Sibusiso Masondo whose constant encouragement and positive advice throughout helped in shaping this study. • A sincere thank you to fellow colleagues at the Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University for shaping my academic journey. • To my wife, Seenzeeni Chairikira Muyambo, whose love, financial support and encouragement gave me perseverance and strength to complete this work. • To my sons, Tinashe, Tinotenda and Tanatswa, I say: Mwakashuma ngekutsungirira! [Thank you for persevering!]. • My grateful thanks to my other family members for their love, support, patience and understanding during the course of this study. • Last but least, my gratitude goes to Chadworth Mashapa (Manzvire Primary School), F.O.S Bandama (Pfidza township, Chikore) and Lazarus Mashoko (Musani Primary School) for their assistance during my fieldwork. vi ACRONYMS AND ABREVIATIONS ABCFM American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AIKS African Indigenous Knowledge Systems APA African Purchase Area BSAC British South Africa Company CoA Comic Agreement DST Department of Science and Technology DST-NRF Department of Science and Technology- National Research Foundation EMA Environment Management Agency FBO Faith-Based Organisation HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IK Indigenous Knowledge IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems IPR Intellectual Property Rights LMS London Missionary Society NAZ National Archives of Zimbabwe NdaFA Ndau Festival of the Arts NCHCN National Culture and Heritage Council of Namibian NGZ National Gallery of Zimbabwe NIKSO National Indigenous Knowledge Systems Office vii NMMZ National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe NNBRI Namibian National Botanical Research Institute NRF National Research Foundation NWU North-West University SADC Southern African Development Community SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats THAN Traditional Healers’ Association of Namibia TK Traditional Knowledge UCCZ United Church of Christ in Zimbabwe UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal UN United Nations UNAM University of Namibia UNDRIP United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNISA University of South Africa UNIVEN University of Venda WHO World Health Organisation ZAOGA Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa ZINATHA Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers’ Association viii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... vi ACRONYMS AND ABREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. xvi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. xvii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction to the study ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background to the study ........................................................................................................ 2 1.2.1 My experiences as a Ndau male member ....................................................................... 2 1.2.2 Building on Other Sources Related