Comparative abundance and ranging behaviour of brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea) inside and outside protected areas in South Africa Louisa Richmond-Coggan A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2014 Statement of Copyright This work is the intellectual property of the author. You may copy up to 5% of this work for private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner(s) of the Intellectual Property Rights. i Abstract Global biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate, principally as a consequence of increasing human population. Effects of this expansion are exemplified by the extent to which many carnivores are now in conflict with humans, particularly in unprotected rangelands. One such species is the brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea), classified as ‘Near Threatened’ (Wiesel et al., 2008). The IUCN SSC hyaenid specialist group identified that brown hyaena are under threat due to human persecution and noted that greater understanding of their distribution and abundance is needed. With the principal aim of assessing the distribution and abundance of brown hyaena in South Africa, this study responds to that challenge. Five specific objectives were established: to utilise local knowledge to map the distribution of carnivores across South Africa; to determine the factors driving attitudes and perceptions of South African farmers to carnivores; to determine differences in relative abundance of carnivores in protected areas compared to unprotected in the North West and Limpopo Provinces; to compare home range estimates and movement patterns of free living brown hyaena inside and outside protected areas in the same provinces; to determine what variables influence brown hyaena home range size. Distribution of brown hyaena and other carnivores, and attitudes to them, were determined using a web-based questionnaire involving multiple stakeholder groups. The results confirmed current knowledge on carnivore distributions but, critically, revealed wider distribution of brown hyaena and other key species than are currently known by IUCN (2013). Responses demonstrated that cultural group and land use type significantly affected attitudes towards all carnivores, with Afrikaans livestock farmers demonstrating the most overtly negative attitudes to all carnivore species. An encouraging finding was that 25% of land owner respondents had positive attitudes to brown hyaenas and were therefore likely to be well disposed to engaging in conservation activities. Further information on the abundance and movement ecology of brown hyaena was gained through an intensive field study in the North West and Limpopo Provinces, which are under-researched. The study was conducted in protected and unprotected areas since brown hyaenas are found in both but are subject to different pressures. The use of remote camera traps demonstrated that the relative abundance of brown hyaena was four times lower in unprotected areas than in the protected areas. A significant finding was that mesopredators showed higher relative abundances in the unprotected areas. This suggests probable further human-wildlife conflict if mesopredator release continues to occur. Low levels of abundance in the unprotected areas, in conjunction with persecution, led to the conclusion that conservation efforts should be focused here. GPS collars were used to determine differences between brown hyaena home range across the protected and unprotected areas, to gain insights into their habitat use, and to establish their movement patterns through the fragmented landscape. The study demonstrated that home range sizes in the unprotected areas were not only significantly smaller than in the protected areas but also substantially smaller than those found across the entire hyaena’s range. Reasons for the variation are suspected to be higher levels of persecution and greater biomass availability outside the protected areas in conjunction with the relatively high density of apex predators inside the protected areas. In conclusion, large carnivore research is critically required outside protected areas where carnivores are currently involved in the most conflict and are at the greatest risk. ii Acknowledgements This study would not have been possible without the ongoing support and assurances of my family and partner and their enduring confidence that I would reach the end successfully. I would like to thank my primary supervisor Dr. Richard Yarnell, Nottingham Trent University, who has been there from the start with advice, direction and support. His willingness to share his in depth knowledge and experience of the field was an invaluable aid throughout. Dr. Louise Gentle and Dr. Christopher Terrell-Nield, Nottingham Trent University, have also been engaged and supportive of the study and I thank them for that. My thanks to Kelly Marnewick at the Endangered Wildlife Trust for granting the study the use of their cage traps. Dr. Dawn Scott, University of Brighton, and Earthwatch provided continuous support throughout the study. Earthwatch provided flights, equipment and volunteers over the duration of the project and the fieldwork would not have been possible without their generosity. Acting as a scientific team leader for Earthwatch at Mankwe always provided many exhilarating, extraordinary and comical moments which never failed to lift my spirits when needed. Special and heartfelt thanks have to go to Lynne and Dougal MacTavish and all the rangers at Mankwe Wildlife Reserve for providing friendship, laughter, a home and a wonderful reserve in which to conduct research. Their passion rubbed off and pushed me to go that extra mile. Access to Pilanesberg National Park and Madikwe Game Reserve was granted by North West Parks and Tourism Board without which the project could not have taken place. Particular thanks go to the two head ecologists of the reserves, Declan Hoymfer and Steven Dell who both supported the project from the beginning putting in untold hours of their own time to help make the project successful. Their passion and dedication for wildlife and conservation is unrivalled and inspiring. They both welcomed me into their world and shared their knowledge and provided so many wonderful memories it would be a thesis on its own. The rangers of both reserves gave their time and expertise and treated me as one of their own, providing much needed laughter and fun along the way. My thanks also to Andrew Jackson at Pilanesberg Wildlife Trust for always being friendly and dedicated to the project, giving up his spare time without a second thought. To Eddie, the game ranger at Pilanesberg National Park who spent hours in a minibus with myself and many an excitable volunteer, winding along the dark track of the reserve long into the night. He was able to identify the smallest of eye shines and was never wrong, I never iii worked out how he did it. During our time setting cameras in the park he provided many memorable moments that I will never forget. To the farmers of the Limpopo Province who although initially bemused by this odd English girl chasing brown hyaenas around their properties, showed untold kindness and friendship throughout the duration of my time there. Many thanks to Theo, John, Ben, Rainard, Werner and Tiaan, wonderful people who all offered their support willingly. To David, Lynn, Emily, Ben and Fudgie Newton who provided me with sanctuary in Johannesburg, treated me like family and were there for me in difficult times. Also Franscois and Mariaan who gave up their time to help me with my camera traps and provided laughter, encouragement and friendship along the way. Finally, to my adopted South African family, Bert, Luette, Lynette, Marius and Eon Van Aarde who took me in and gave me more than a place to stay. They gave me a home for three years, which meant that I was never alone, and asked nothing in return. Nothing was ever too much and their generosity knew no limits. Their hospitality, laughter, friendship and the occasional tow out of the mud or to town meant that I could face any challenge that came my way. iv Table of Contents Statement of Copyright .......................................................................................................... i Abstract ................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... v List of Figures .................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables....................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Drivers of Global Biodiversity Loss ........................................................................... 2 1.2. Carnivore Conservation .............................................................................................