Transculturation and Indigenous Amungme women of Papua, Indonesia Josina Octovina Wospakrik A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Humanities and Languages Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences April 2019 i ii iii INCLUSION OF PUBLICATIONS STATEMENT UNSW is supportive of candidates publishing their research results during their candidature as detailed in the UNSW Thesis Examination Procedure. Publications can be used in their thesis in lieu of a Chapter if: The student contributed greater than 50% of the content in the publication and is the “primary author”, ie. the student was responsible primarily for the planning, execution and preparation of the work for publication The student has approval to include the publication in their thesis in lieu of a Chapter from their supervisor and Postgraduate Coordinator. 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Name Signature Date Josina Octovina Wospakrik 26/ 04/ 2019 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. 1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................................. 3 ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................... 6 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 7 Theoretical justification for the study ............................................................................................ 7 Research aim and objectives ....................................................................................................... 12 Setting the scene ........................................................................................................................ 13 Research rationale ...................................................................................................................... 33 Structure of the thesis ................................................................................................................. 38 A brief preface to the study ......................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................43 MARRIAGE, DIVORCE AND NEOCULTURATION ..................................................43 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 43 1.2 Marriage, polygamy and divorce ....................................................................................... 44 1.3 Amungme women’s stories about their marriage ............................................................... 58 1.4 Feminists norms about marriage ....................................................................................... 73 1.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................79 MODERN DREAMINGS ...............................................................................................79 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 79 2.2 Cultural forces of transculturation ..................................................................................... 79 2.3 Contact zone in several spheres ......................................................................................... 84 2.3.1 The garden as a contact zone ................................................................................. 85 2.3.2 Contact zone in the marketplace ............................................................................ 93 2.3.3 The workplace as a contact zone ............................................................................ 98 2.4 Endangered masculinity ................................................................................................. 104 2.5 Patriarchal nightmares .................................................................................................. 110 2.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 114 CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 116 1 WOMEN IN THE WORKPLACE .............................................................................. 116 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 116 3.2 Capitalism and women in Third World countries .............................................................. 117 3.3 Shifting gender roles: From the domestic to the public sphere .......................................... 122 3.3.1 Working with Freeport Mining Company .............................................................. 125 3.3.2 Working as a civil servant .................................................................................. 130 3.4 Household tasks and the workplace: In between .............................................................. 133 3.5 Gender and power dynamics in the workplace ................................................................. 137 3.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 146 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 148 CARING FOR INDIGENOUS FUTURES .................................................................. 148 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 148 4.2 The emergence of an indigenous women’s organisation in Timika .................................... 150 4.3 Raising awareness of cleanliness ..................................................................................... 157 4.4 Rejecting modern foods ................................................................................................... 167 4.5 Concerning maternal and infant health ............................................................................ 169 4.6 Net string bags: Maintaining culture and income for women ........................................... 175 4.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 180 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 183 Acknowledgment of limitations of the study.............................................................................. 188 Recommendations for future research ...................................................................................... 189 Reflections as a transcultural agent .......................................................................................... 190 Appendices194 Appendix 1: Research Methodology ................................................................... 194 Appendix 2: Selected transcriptions of interviews ........................................ 226 Appendix 3: Interview guides for indigenous Amungme ............................. 242 Appendix 4: Interview guides for complementary participant .................. 248 Appendix 5: MAP ..................................................................................................... 251 Appendix 6: Ethics Approval ................................................................................ 252 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 253 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis is dedicated to the indigenous Amungme people of Timika in the Mimika regency of Papua, Indonesia. It is especially dedicated to the indigenous Amungme women who welcomed me warmly into their community. They deserve my deep gratitude for generously sharing their stories, experiences and views. These were of great value to my research and understanding gender relations in their contemporary lives. I would like to thank my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Eben Scott Kirksey, for his painstaking reading of my thesis, both its