Lecture 3: Particle Interactions with Matter (Part II) & Particle ID Eva Halkiadakis Rutgers University TASI Summer School 2009 Boulder, CO Detectors and Particle Interactions • Understanding the LHC detectors (and their differences) requires a basic understanding of the interaction of high energy particles and matter • Also required for understanding how experimentalists identify particles and make physics measurements/discoveries • Particles can interact with: . atoms/molecules . atomic electrons . nucleus Important to understand interactions of: • Results in many effects: • Charged Particles . Ionization (inelastic) . Light: Electrons . Elastic scattering (Coulomb) . Heavy: All Others (π, µ, K, etc.) . Energy loss (Bremsstrahlung) • Neutral Particles . Pair-creation . Photons . etc. Neutrons Lot’s of sources. Main one used here is the PDG: pdg.lbl.gov 2 Radiation Length • The radiation length (X0) is th characteristic length that describes the energy decay of a beam of electrons: • Distance over which the electron energy is reduced by a factor of 1/e due to radiation losses only • Radiation loss is approx. independent of material when thickness expressed in terms of X0 • Higher Z materials have shorter radiation length . want high-Z material for an EM calorimeter . want as little material as possible in front of calorimeter • Example: 3 lead: ρ = 11.4 g/cm so X0 = 5.5 mm • The energy loss by brem is: dE E " = 3 dx X0 ! Energy Loss of Photons and EM Showers • High-energy photons predominately lose energy in matter by e+e− pair production • The mean free path for pair production by a high-energy photon 9 " = X0 7 J.Conway • Note for electrons λ=X0 • But then we have high energy electrons…so the process repeats! . This is an electromagnetic shower! . An electromagnetic cascade as pair ! production and bremsstrahlung generate more electrons and photons with lower energy T. Dorigo 4 Hadronic Showers • Interactions of heavy particles with nuclei can also produce hadronic showers • Described by the nuclear interaction length EM shower too! $2 1/3 "n # 35gcm A • For heavy (high Z) materials we see that the nuclear interaction length is a lot longer than the electromagnetic one, λn > X0 • So hadronic showers start later than electromagnetic showers and are more diffuse ! • Example: lead ~ steel = 17 cm 5 Pictures of EM and Had Showers! From “High pT physics at hadron colliders” By Dan Green 6 Muons • Because of it’s long lifetime, the muon for our purposes is like a stable particle (cτ ~ 700 m) • As we saw it is a MIP • Also, does not feel the strong interaction . No hadron shower, only MIP • Therefore, they are very penetrating • However, at high energies muons can sometimes behave more like electrons! . At high energies radiative losses begin to dominate and muons can brem PDG . The effective radiation length decreases at high energy and so (late) EM showers can develop in the detector 7 Particle Detectors • Goal is to completely surround collision by arranging different types of detectors in layers. • We know how particles interact with matter and we identify them (to the best of our ability!) by exploiting differences in showering, interaction with matter • What do we want to know about the particles? • Their momentum and charge (magnetic field) • Their energy (particles are absorbed) • Their species (we exploit differences) • Starting from center moving outwards: • Tracking detectors within a B field • Electromagnetic calorimeter • Hadronic calorimeter • Muon chambers 8 Tracking Detectors • Purpose: measure momentum and charge of charged particles • To minimize multiple scattering, we want tracking detectors to contain as little material as possible • Two main technologies: . gas/wire drift chambers (like CDF’s COT) . solid-state detectors (silicon) • Silicon is now the dominant sensor material in use for tracking detectors at the LHC (especially CMS) CMS 9 Gas/Wire Drift Chambers • Wires in a volume filled with a gas (such as Argon/Ethan) • Measure where a charged particle has crossed . charged particle ionizes the gas. electrical potentials applied to the wires so electrons drift to the sense wire . electronics measures the charge of the signal and when it appears. • To reconstruct the particles track several chamber planes are needed • Example: . CDF COT: 30 k wires, 180 μm hit resolution • Advantage: . low thickness (fraction of X0) . traditionally preferred technology for large volume detectors 10 Silicon Detectors ~300µm • Semi-conductor physics: . doped silicon: p-n junction . apply very large reverse-bias voltage to p-n junction • “fully depleted” the silicon, leaving E field • Resolution 1-2% @ 100 GeV • Important for detection secondary vertices . b-tagging (more on this later) 11 Momentum and Charge Measurement • Since a B field is applied, by measuring a few points of the particle’s track we can reconstruct the curvature of the track . pT ∝radius of curvature • sagitta depends on tracking length L, p ,and B M. Mannelli T BL2 s " 13.3pT • Example: . If B = 4 T, L = 1 m, pT = 100 GeV we get a sagitta = 3 mm DØ • Momentum resolution p 2 ! ∝ T . It gets worse at high pT! 12 Silicon Pixel Detectors • These detectors provide very high granularity, high precision set of measurements as close to the interaction point as possible. CMS ATLAS # Pixels 65 million 80 million CMS strips ATLAS pixels 13 EM Calorimeters • Purpose: measure energy of EM particles (charged or neutral) • How? . Use heavy material to cause EM shower (brem/pair production) . Total absorption / stop particles . Important parameter is X0 (usually 15-30 X0 or a high Z material) . There is little material before the calorimeter (tracker) • Two types of calorimeters: CMS EM Cal (PbWO) . Sampling . Homogeneous • Relative energy uncertainty decreases with E ! a: stochastic term (photon counting) b: constant term c: noise (electronics) Add terms in quadrature 14 Sampling vs. Homogeneous Calorimeters • Sampling calorimeter . active medium which generates signal • scintillator, an ionizing noble liquid, a Cherenkov radiator… . a passive medium which functions as an absorber • material of high density, such as lead, iron, copper, or depleted uranium. • σE/E ~ 10% • Homogeneous calorimeter . the entire volume generates signal. usually electromagnetic . inorganic heavy (high-Z ) scintillating crystals • CsI, NaI, and PWO, ionizing noble liquids… • σE/E ~ 1% 15 Hadronic Calorimeters • Purpose: measure energy of hadronic/heavy particles • How? . Similar to EM calorimeters but important parameter is λn (usually 5-8 λn) . Typically sampling calorimeters . Larger and coarser in sampling depth • Resolutions typically a lot worse than EM cal. Atlas Tile Cal. Stochastic term 30-50% and higher (~80% at CDF) 16 Muon Chambers • Purpose: measure momentum / charge of muons • Recall that the muon signature is extraordinarily penetrating • Muon chambers are the outermost layer • Measurements are made combined with inner tracker • Muon chambers in LHC experiments: . Series of tracking chambers for precise measurements • RPC’s: Resistive Plate Chambers • DT’s: Drift Tubes • CSC’s: Cathode Strip Chambers • TGC’s: Thin Gap Chambers ATLAS Muon system CMS Muon chambers 17 ATLAS and CMS Detectors Revisited • Two different approaches for detectors • Both need to be very radiation hard /4Tesla 18 Animation 19 Backup 20 21.