National Science Board | Science & Engineering Indicators 2016 1 | 1 Chapter 1. Elementary and Secondary Mathematics and Science Education Table of Contents Highlights ...................................................................................................................................... 1-4 Student Learning in Mathematics and Science ............................................................................. 1-4 High School Coursetaking in Mathematics and Science .................................................................. 1-5 Teachers of Mathematics and Science ......................................................................................... 1-5 Instructional Technology and Digital Learning .............................................................................. 1-6 Transition to Higher Education ................................................................................................... 1-6 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1-8 Chapter Overview .................................................................................................................... 1-8 Chapter Organization ............................................................................................................... 1-9 Student Learning in Mathematics and Science .............................................................................. 1-12 National Trends ..................................................................................................................... 1-12 Student Development over Time: Longitudinal Data ................................................................... 1-19 International Comparisons of Mathematics and Science Performance ............................................ 1-26 High School Coursetaking in Mathematics and Science ................................................................ 1-39 Eleventh Grade Mathematics and Science Coursetaking .............................................................. 1-39 Participation and Performance in the Advanced Placement Program .............................................. 1-51 Racial and Ethnic Differences in Advanced Mathematics and Science Coursetaking: Civil Rights Data .... 1- 54 Teachers of Mathematics and Science .......................................................................................... 1-55 Characteristics of High-Quality Teachers ................................................................................... 1-55 School Factors Contributing to Teachers' Effectiveness ................................................................ 1-64 Instructional Technology and Digital Learning ............................................................................. 1-77 Technology as an Instructional Tool .......................................................................................... 1-77 Distance Education and Online Courses ..................................................................................... 1-80 Research on Effectiveness of Instructional Technology and Online Learning ................................... 1-81 Transition to Higher Education ..................................................................................................... 1-83 Completion of High School ...................................................................................................... 1-83 Enrollment in Postsecondary Education ..................................................................................... 1-88 Transition to STEM Fields ........................................................................................................ 1-90 Postsecondary Enrollment in an International Context ................................................................. 1-93 Preparation for College ........................................................................................................... 1-96 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 1-98 Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 1-100 References ................................................................................................................................. 1-102 List of Sidebars The Context and Content of National K-12 Mathematics and Science Standards ........................................ 1-8 Sample Items from the Program for International Student Assessment Mathematics and Science Assessments .. 1-28 E-rate Program: Its Purpose and Modernization .................................................................................. 1-79 National Science Board | Science & Engineering Indicators 2016 1 | 2 Measuring College Readiness ............................................................................................................ 1-96 List of Tables Table 1-1. Indicators of elementary and secondary school mathematics and science education ................... 1-9 Table 1-2. Magnitude of changes in NAEP LTT mathematics assessment score gaps, by race or ethnicity and parents' highest education: 1978–2012 ............................................................................................. 1-19 Table 1-3. Mean mathematics and science literacy assessment scores of 15-year-old students in the United States, by sex: 2003–12 .................................................................................................................. 1-30 Table 1-4. Mean mathematics literacy assessment scores of 15-year-old students in developed countries, by country: 2012 ................................................................................................................................ 1-31 Table 1-5. Mean science literacy assessment scores of 15-year-old students in developed countries, by country: 2012 ............................................................................................................................................. 1-32 Table 1-6. Mean deviation of science literacy assessment scores of 15-year-old students in developed countries, by country: 2012 ............................................................................................................................ 1-34 Table 1-7. Mean deviation of mathematics literacy assessment scores of 15-year-old students in developed countries, by country: 2012 ............................................................................................................. 1-36 Table 1-8. Highest-level mathematics course in which students in grade 11 enrolled, by student and family characteristics: 2012 ....................................................................................................................... 1-40 Table 1-9. Highest-level science course enrollment of students in grade 11, by student and family characteristics: 2012 ....................................................................................................................... 1-44 Table 1-10. Engineering and computer/information science course enrollment of students in grade 11, by student and family characteristics: 2012 ............................................................................................ 1-49 Table 1-11. Public school students who took or passed an AP exam as a proportion of overall student population, by subject: Graduating classes 2003, 2008, and 2013 ......................................................................... 1-52 Table 1-12. Public school students who took or passed an AP exam in high school, by subject: Graduating classes 2003, 2008, and 2013 .......................................................................................................... 1-52 Table 1-13. Public middle and high school mathematics and science teachers with a master's or higher degree, by minority enrollment and school poverty level: Academic year 2011–12 .............................................. 1-57 Table 1-14. Public middle and high school mathematics and science teachers with a regular or advanced certification, by minority enrollment and school poverty level: Academic year 2011–12 ............................ 1-59 Table 1-15. Public middle and high school mathematics, science, and other teachers who entered teaching through an alternative certification program, by minority enrollment and school poverty level: Academic year 2011–12 ........................................................................................................................................ 1-61 Table 1-16. Public middle and high school mathematics and science teachers with less than 3 years of teaching experience, by minority enrollment and school poverty level: Academic year 2011–12 ............................. 1-64 Table 1-17. Preparation of public middle and high school mathematics and science teachers for teaching in their field: Academic years 2003–04, 2007–08, and 2011–12 ....................................................................... 1-66 Table 1-18. Mathematics and science teachers' views of adequacy of instructional resources in class, by class and school characteristics: 2012 ....................................................................................................... 1-78 Table 1-19. On-time graduation rates of U.S. public high school students, by sex and race or ethnicity: 2006−12 ...................................................................................................................................................