SEEKING VINDICATION, ESPECIALLY IN JONAH RONALD T. HYMAN Questions serve multiple functions simultaneously, whether in classrooms, daily conversations, courtroom trials, or religious matters, including the Tanakh. Questions can serve the functions of testing, showing concern for other people, stimulating attention, obtaining information, and (via rhetorical questions) posing issues for people to consider on their own without responding to the questioner. Such functions are common and come to mind 1 readily. In this article, I shall focus on another function of questions that is common but which does not come to mind readily. This function is rebuking. After presenting three examples of the general category of rebuking questions and their characteristics, I shall focus on one type of rebuking question that was heretofore (to my knowledge) unidentified: the vindication question. I shall offer six examples of vindication questions in the Tanakh and their characteristics. Then I shall explore some issues that arise from the prime example of a vindication question: the question that ends the Book of Jonah. As an example of the general rebuking category, consider first the question in Jonah 1:6 where the captain of the ship says to Jonah: 'What is it with you that you are asleep? Arise, call upon your god; perhaps your god will think upon us and we will not perish. ' With his question and its related command the ship's captain rebukes Jonah for going to sleep during the severe storm at sea when all others aboard are trying to save the ship and their lives. Consider also two more questions that serve to rebuke their addressees: (1) In Exodus 2:14, after Moses has rebuked a Hebrew man for fighting with another Hebrew, the man says to Moses: 'Who put you as an officer and judge above us? Do you mean to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?' (2) In Genesis 44:4, Joseph's steward, upon overtaking Joseph's brothers on their trip back home, says to them: 'Why did you repay good with evil? Is this not the goblet from which my master drinks and which he uses for divining? You have done a bad thing.' These three examples suffice to offer some key characteristics of questions Ronald T. Hyman is Professor of Education at Rutgers University in New Jersey. His most recent book is Mandatory Community Service in High School: The Legal Dimension (1999) . RONALD T. HYMAN that serve the function of rebuking the addressee. First and foremost, it is the context of a question that indicates the functions that a given question serves. The context includes the tone of the question (heard or inferred) and the relation of that question to surrounding questions, statements, or commands. These related items serve as clues and indicators of the rebuking function. Specifically, in the first example, the context of the question includes a boat caught in a severe storm during which the sailors are throwing cargo overboard because the ship is in danger of breaking up. This context implies that the primary function of the captain's question is to rebuke the sleeping Jonah, not to seek information from him. Moreover, the captain follows with a command to Jonah in order to correct Jonah's unacceptable behavior. In addition, the three examples suffice to show that: (1) A rebuking question can be in Yes/No form or with an interrogative word such as Who, What, Why, or How. (2) Such questions can be stated with a positive (Is such and such . ?) or a negative valence (Is it not such and such . ?). (3) A reader of or listener to a rebuking question must perform a triple transformation to arrive at the intended meaning of that question. The reader or listener must: Alter the grammatical structure from interrogative to declarative form; switch the valence from positive to negative or vice-versa ; and rephrase or flesh out the new declarative statement in order to arrive at the affective tone and functional meaning of the question. Thus, the captain's question in the first example above should be transformed to: "In such a severe storm you should not be sleeping while everyone is scurrying about to save the ship and our lives. Get up, call to your god; perhaps your god will hear your prayer and save us, lest we perish." People, in literature and life, do not consciously perform this triple transformation in order to understand the intent of the rebuking question, because this type of question is so common that habit operates for the reader or listener, thereby superseding awareness of the transformation performed. VINDICATION With the above material about rebuking questions in mind, let us look at six 2 examples of the "vindication" subtype of rebuking questions in the Tanakh. These questions serve to vindicate their speakers for what they have said or JEWISH BIBLE QUARTERLY SEEKING VINDICATION done. That is to say, with the messages these questions convey, the speakers seek to justify their actions, to clear themselves of any accusation or rebuke, to exonerate themselves, or to absolve themselves of any blame. 1. God asks Cain: 'Where is Abel your brother?' Cain responds: 'I do not know. Am I my brother's keeper?' (Gen. 4:9). 2. Jacob criticizes Simeon and Levi for killing Shechem and his people. The sons respond: 'As a whore shall he treat our sister?' (Gen. 34:31). 3. Jacob criticizes his sons for telling "the man" (Joseph) that that they have another brother. They respond: 'The man specifically asked us about ourselves and our relatives saying, "Is your father still alive? Do you have a brother?" So we told him according to these words. Could we know in any way that he would say, "Bring your brother down here"?' (Gen. 43:7). 4. Joseph's steward accuses the brothers of stealing Joseph's goblet, They respond: 'Why does my lord speak these words ? Far be it from your servants to do such a thing. In fact, we brought back to you from Canaan the money which we found in the tops of our sacks. So, how could we steal from your master's house silver or gold?' (Gen. 44:7-8). 5. Jonah chides God for accepting the repentance of the Ninevites. God responds: 'And should I not have pity on Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than six score thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand, and also much cattle?' (Jon. 4:11). 6. The Prophet Nahum says, in ending his prophecy of the fall of the city of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria: 'For on whom has not your wickedness passed continually?' (Nah. 3:19). These six questions all manifest three central characteristics. First, they share a common function: vindication of the speaker's actions. Second, they arise because the speaker(s) were rebuked or hurt in some way. The vindication- question rebuts the rebuke. Each question is a defensive maneuver. 1. Cain in a sarcastic and disrespectful way vindicates himself for his alleged but false lack of knowledge of Abel's whereabouts by stating that he is not accountable for Abel. 2. Jacob's sons vindicate themselves by stating that "he," whoever that is, treated their sister Dinah as a whore, which led to the deserved punishment meted out by them. Vol. 30, No. 1, 2002 RONALD T. HYMAN 3. Jacob's 10 sons vindicate their actions by arguing that they had no choice but to respond to questions from the man who controlled the distribution of food in Egypt, and they could not anticipate what he would say to them. 4. Joseph's brothers seek vindication from the charge that they are thieves by asserting a logical argument created to prove they are honest people. 5. God vindicates His sparing of Nineveh because of its thousands of people and animals who do not know right from wrong. 6. Nahum vindicates his prophecy that Nineveh will be destroyed as he justifies the destruction of Nineveh because of the Assyrians' malice and wickedness. The third characteristic of these questions accompanies the sought-for vindication. Each question simultaneously issues its own rebuke. That is to 3 say, each vindication question is also a counter-rebuke. The speakers do not oppose the act of rebuking per se, but rather the content of the particular rebuke aimed at them. Therefore, they are not hypocritical or inconsistent when they themselves rebuke their rebukers. After all, they could have chosen a different linguistic technique, a straightforward declarative explanatory statement, to vindicate their behavior. Indeed, it was this declarative explanatory technique that Laban used when he sought vindication from the rebuking question by Jacob in Genesis 29:25: 'What is this you have done to me? I was in your service for Rachel. Why did you deceive me? ' To vindicate himself, Laban explains: 'It is not done so in this place to give the younger before the first-born . .' Similarly, Hannah in I Samuel 1:15 vindicates her actions with a deferential and declarative explanation after being rebuked by Eli for being drunk. Hannah explains: 'No, my lord, I am a woman of sorrowful spirit; I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink, but I poured out my soul before the Lord.' In addition to the three characteristics common to all six questions, let us note that Examples 2, 5, and 6 share another characteristic. Each constitutes the final verse of the story or book involved. Thus, the authors of Genesis 34, 4 Jonah, and Nahum each closes with a rebuking vindication question, thereby indicating their agreement with Jacob's sons, God, and Nahum, rather than the original rebukers – Jacob, Jonah, and Assyria.