Drug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Violence in the Americas Today University Press of Florida Florida A&M University, Tallahassee Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton Florida Gulf Coast University, Ft. Myers Florida International University, Miami Florida State University, Tallahassee New College of Florida, Sarasota University of Central Florida, Orlando University of Florida, Gainesville University of North Florida, Jacksonville University of South Florida, Tampa University of West Florida, Pensacola Drug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Violence in the Americas Today Edited by Bruce M. Bagley and Jonathan D. Rosen University Press of Florida Gainesville · Tallahassee · Tampa · Boca Raton Pensacola · Orlando · Miami · Jacksonville · Ft. Myers · Sarasota Copyright 2015 by Bruce M. Bagley and Jonathan D. Rosen All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper This book may be available in an electronic edition. 20 19 18 17 16 15 6 5 4 3 2 1 A record of cataloging-in-publication data is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-0-8130-6068-2 The University Press of Florida is the scholarly publishing agency for the State University System of Florida, comprising Florida A&M University, Florida Atlantic University, Florida Gulf Coast University, Florida International University, Florida State University, New College of Florida, University of Central Florida, University of Florida, University of North Florida, University of South Florida, and University of West Florida. University Press of Florida 15 Northwest 15th Street Gainesville, FL 32611-2079 http://www.upf.com Contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xi Preface: On the Study of Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean in the Twenty-First Century xiii Acknowledgments xix Introduction. Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime in Latin America and the Caribbean in the Twenty-First Century: Challenges to Democracy 1 Bruce M. Bagley Part I. U.S. Drug Policies at Home and Abroad 1. Coca, Cocaine, and Consumption: Trends and Antitrends 27 J. Bryan Page 2. Illegal Drugs as a National Security Threat: Securitization of Drugs in the U.S. Official Discourse 43 Yulia Vorobyeva 3. The War on Drugs and the Role of SOUTHCOM 67 Juan Gabriel Tokatlian 4. Mission Creep: The U.S. Military’s Counterdrug Role in the Americas 87 Adam Isacson 5. Security Challenges at the U.S.-Mexican Border: Understanding the Security Threats to State and Local Governments 109 Rocío A. Rivera Barradas 6. Drug-Control Policies in the United States: Patterns, Prevalence, and Problems of Drug Use in the United States 121 Bruce M. Bagley Part II. Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime: Country and Regional Analyses Colombia 7. Colombia and Its Wars against Drug Trafficking, 1970–2010 139 Elvira María Restrepo 8. Illicit Drugs in the Colombia-U.S. Relationship: Review and Prospects 161 Arlene B. Tickner and Carolina Cepeda 9. Escalating Heroin Consumption and the Spread of HIV in Colombia: An Emerging Public Health Threat 185 Clyde McCoy, Daniel H. Ciccarone, Zelde Espinel Ben-Amy, Jeanene McCoy Bengoa, Oscar Bernal, Duane C. McBride, and James M. Shultz Bolivia 10. Bolivian Drug Policy under the Morales Administration 203 Marten W. Brienen Peru 11. The Vicious Cycle: The Resurgence of Drug Production and Drug Trafficking in Peru 223 Marten W. Brienen and Jonathan D. Rosen Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean 12. In Search of the Mérida Initiative: From Antecedents to Practical Results 239 Alberto Lozano-Vázquez and Jorge Rebolledo Flores 13. Police Reform in Mexico: A Never-Ending Story 257 Sigrid Arzt 14. Democracy, Security, and Organized Crime in Central America 276 Francisco Rojas Aravena 15. Seeking Out the State: Organized Crime, Violence, and Statetropism in the Caribbean 293 Lilian Bobea Brazil 16. The Power of Organized Crime in Brazil: From Public and Social Challenges to the Effectiveness of Reforms 323 Marcelo Rocha e Silva Zorovich Argentina 17. Under (Loose) Control: Drug Trafficking in Argentina in Times of Paradigm Change 344 Khatchik DerGhougassian and Glen Evans Part III. Regional and International Drug-Control Policies 18. The Role of the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission: Confronting the Problem of Illegal Drugs in the Americas 369 Betty Horwitz 19. The Strategies of the European Union against Drug Trafficking 395 Roberto Domínguez 20. Analytical Conclusions: The Search for Alternative Drug Policies in the Americas 412 Bruce M. Bagley and Jonathan D. Rosen List of Contributors 425 Index 431 Figures 1.1. Use of the word “cocaine” between 1800 and the present 36 7.1. Violence against judges, 1979–1998 141 15.1. Dominican Republic cocaine seizures, 2008–2013 297 17.1. Marijuana and cocaine seizures during implementation of GNA, PNA, and PSA procedures, 2009–2011 350 17.2. Marijuana seizures during implementation of GNA, PNA, and PSA procedures, 2009–2011 350 17.3. Cocaine seizures during implementation of GNA, PNA, and PSA procedures, 2008–2011 351 Tables I.1. Proliferation of Mexican cartels, 2006–2010 11 1.1 Trends in cocaine use among those 12 and older, 1979–2008 40 4.1. Highlights of U.S. aid to Colombia, 2000–2011 93 13.1. Citizens Institute for Studies on Insecurity crime survey, 2008 265 13.2. Citizens Institute for Studies on Insecurity crime survey, 2008 265 13.3. Citizens Institute for Studies on Insecurity crime survey, 2009 267 13.4. President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa’s national strategy against organized crime, 2006–2012 268 13.5. Federal resources directed to the states, Calderón administration 270 14.1. Consumption and seizures of cocaine in Central America 280 14.2. Private security agents and police in Central America, by country 283 14.3. Incarcerated population, Central America (absolute value) 285 14.4. Homicides per 100,000 inhabitants, Latin America and the Caribbean, 2003–2008 289 14.5. Comparative indicators for Central America 290 14.6. Economic costs of crime and violence in Central America as a percentage of GDP 290 15.1. Drugs seized in the Dominican Republic, by type, 2002–2011 296 15.2. Arrests for drug-related crimes, Dominican Republic, 2002–2011 303 15.3. Crimes by type, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 2010–2011 304 15.4. Homicides by municipality, situation, and sex of decedent, Puerto Rico, 2009 305 15.5. Homicides in Puerto Rico, by age and sex, November 30, 2012 306 15.6. Configuration of the Ayala Vázquez network 314 xii · Tables 16.1. Expenditures on public security, Brazil and the United States, 2007–2009 325 16.2. Inhabitants of Brazil’s slums, by municipality, population, and percentage of total, 2010–2011 333 16.3. Historical evolution of slums, Rio de Janeiro 335 Preface On the Study of Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean in the Twenty-First Century One cannot pick up the newspaper without reading a story about drug traf- ficking and organized crime and the extreme levels of violence associated with such activities. This volume is an effort to discuss the major recent trends in drug trafficking, organized crime, and violence in the Americas. The book is divided into three parts covering overall trends and themes, as well as country-specific analyses. Overview This book seeks to provide a clear picture of the state of organized crime and drug trafficking and their impact on the state at the outset of the twenty-first century. The goal of this work is to examine where we have been and where we are in the twenty-first century in the war on drugs. In other words, what have been the major trends of the twenty-first cen- tury? What is the future of the “war on drugs” in the United States, Central America, and South America? We have organized the book both geographically and thematically. In terms of geography, we are particularly keen on examining drug traffick- ing and organized crime and their consequences in various subregions. Organized crime and drug trafficking have had different impacts on the internal dynamics of countries as well as on levels of security and demo- cratic stability. The war on drugs has had major negative consequences for countries throughout the region, causing politicians and experts to ques- tion the U.S.-led war on drugs. In this volume, we develop a framework for understanding why so many people are questioning the direction of the U.S.-championed war on drugs throughout the region. The war on drugs has been very costly in terms of lives lost and money spent. Critics and skeptics throughout the Americas do not want the same results that have occurred since 1990, and countries throughout the region are not willing to continue to incur such large costs. xiv · Preface Volume Organization This volume is divided into three major sections. Bruce M. Bagley begins the volume with “Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime in Latin Amer- ica and the Caribbean in the Twenty-First Century.” As the title indicates, Bagley examines the major trends of the twenty-first century and provides a critical analysis of the war on drugs. He examines the “balloon” effect and provides a thorough discussion of the shifting routes. In “Coca, Cocaine, and Consumption,” J. Bryan Page analyzes the major trends in cocaine use over time by invoking the use of anthropological research techniques. This chapter is followed by Yulia Vorobyeva’s “Illegal Drugs as a National Security Threat: Securitization of Drugs in the U.S. Official Discourse,” which analyzes the discourse and securitization of the war on drugs. Juan Gabriel Tokatlian’s “The War on Drugs and the Role of SOUTHCOM” examines the increasing presence of the military and iden- tifies the various tasks that the military have performed. Adam Isacson follows with “Mission Creep: The U.S. Military’s Counter- drug Role in the Americas.” From 2000 to 2012, the United States allocated $13.9 billion in military assistance to countries throughout the Americas, and the overwhelming majority of the money, 83 percent, was allocated to help countries combat drug trafficking.1 Isacson explores the blurring lines between the duties of the police and the military and discusses the role of mission creep and its impact on security in the region.