https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ Theses Digitisation: https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/research/enlighten/theses/digitisation/ This is a digitised version of the original print thesis. Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Enlighten: Theses https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] The Islamic Concepts of Masculinity and Femininity Asifa Si raj Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Glasgow Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Applied Social Sciences August 2006 © Asifa SIraj ProQuest Number: 10395999 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely e v e n t that the author did not send a c o m p le te manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10395999 Published by ProQuest LLO (2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e Microform Edition © ProQuest LLO. ProQuest LLO. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.Q. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346 GLASGOW UNIVERSITY .LIBRARY; A b s t r a c t This thesis explores the subject of masculinity and femininity through interviews with 68 heterosexual Muslims (33 male and 35 females) in Glasgow and 7 homosexual Muslim males in London. The purpose of this study is to explore heterosexual masculinity and femininity from a Muslim perspective. While there has been much research on Muslim women, there has been very little work on Muslim men. In this thesis, I approach the subject of masculinity and femininity from a sociological and religious perspective. That is, my research examines 'Western' sociological theories of masculinity and femininity, and the interpretations of the Qur'an and hadith texts provided by traditional and modern Muslim scholars and compare them with what my participants have to say about their own constructions of femininity and masculinity. The principle objective of my research is to focus on the role that religion plays in shaping gender and sexuality. While sociological theorists gee gender as something that is socially constructed and performed, traditional Muslim scholars portray gender as 'natural' and given by Allah. With my participants we see both constructivist and essentialist views being expressed. I look at how these views Influence the daily lives, roles and behaviours of my Muslim participants. Research on homosexual Muslim masculinity has to date been non­ existent. With interviews with 7 male homosexual men I examine how homosexual Muslims 'accommodate' themselves within Islam's heteronormative social structures. I look at how they reconcile their faith with their sexuality and whether this represents a challenge to Islamic heteronormativlty. I explore the implications this 'accommodation' has on homosexual's men's understanding of gender roles and relations, and in particular, how they grapple with the issue of masculinity and sexuality in Islam. T able of C o n t e n t s Abstract i Table of Contents ii List of Tables Vi Acknowledgment vii Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Overview of Study 1 1.2 Why Did I Undertake This Research? 1 1.3 My Experience of the Research Process 1 1.4 Outline of Thesis 3 Chapter Two: Methodology 2.1 Research Procedure 6 2.2 Sample Selection 6 2.2.1 Homosexual Sample 6 2.3 Sample Selection Process 7 2.3.1 Sample Composition 9 2.4 Social Class And Background Of Sample 10 2.4.1 Education, Employment And Occupation 10 2.4.2 Age Of Participants 12 2.4.3 Home Ownership 13 2.4.4 Summary 13 2.5 Data Collection 13 2.5.1 Data Analysis 15 2.6 Researcher Subjectivity 15 2.6.1 Where Do I Locate Myself 16 2.6.2 Insider Status 17 2.6.3 My Appearance 17 2.6.4 Gender Congruence 19 2.6.5 Ethnic Congruence 19 2.6.6 Outsider Status 21 2.7 Limitations of the Study 21 2.8 Conclusion 24 Chapter Three: Islam as Religion, Belief and Practice 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Terminology 25 3.3 Islam 26 3.4 Theological Divisions 29 3.5 Four Schools of Thought 30 Chapter Four: British Musilms 4.1 British Muslim Population 33 4.2 The Satanic Verses 35 4.3 Muslim 'Community' 35 4.3.1 The Role Of Mosques In The Creation Of A Muslim 'Community' 38 1 4.3.2 Muslim Diaspora In Glasgow 39 4.3.3 Musilms In The 'West' 41 ; 4.3.4 Muslim Diaspora In The 'West' 43 4.4 Islam In Practice 51 4.5 Rediscovery of Religion Amongst Glasgow's Muslim Women 56 4.6 Conclusion 62 Chapter Five: Femininity 5.1 Introduction 64 The Study of Gender from 'Western' Sociological and Religious Viewpoints 5.2. Terminology 66 5.3 Feminism 67 5.3.1 Islamic Feminists 68 5.3.2 The Construction of Femininity in the 'West' 70 5.3.3 The Construction of Motherhood in the 'West' 75 5.3.4 Marriage In The 'West' 76 5.3.5 Motherhood in Islam 77 5.3.6 Marriage in Islam 80 5.4 Women's Position Prior to the Advent of Islam 82 5.4.1 Women's 'New' Position in Islam 83 5.5 Female/Male Witnesses 91 5.5.1 Deficient in Intelligence 92 5.6 Inheritance 93 5.6.1 Divorce 93 5.7 The Debate About the /yÿaZ? 94 5.7.1 Female Covering and Terminology 95 5.7.2 The Female Body 95 5.7.3 The Hijab 97 5.7.4 Muslim Female Dress 98 5.7.5 The Veil Around the World 100 5.7.6 The Politics of the Veil 104 5.8 Female Participants Who Wore The Hijab 105 5.8.1 Non-Wearing Hijab?o.ma\e Participants 109 5.9 Conclusion 113 Chapter Six: Female Participants Views on Femin inlty : 6.1 The Construction of Femininity 115 6.1.2 Female Views On Femininity 117 6.1.3 Are You Feminine? 118 6.2 Islam and Femininity 122 6.3 Male Participants Views on Femininity 124 6.3.1 The Construction of Femininity 124 6.4 Islam 128 6.4.1 Hijab 129 6.5 'Women Are Cleaner': 132 The Domestic Division of Labour Amongst Muslim Couples 6.5.1 Previous Research 132 6.6 Background of Participants 134 6.7 Housework 134 6.7.1 Part-Time Work/Childcare 138 6.8 'Helping Out' 142 6.8.1 'Sharing' 146 6.9 Conclusion 151 Chapter Seven: Masculinity 7.1 Introduction 154 7.2 A Review of Masculinity/Masculinities in Sociology 155 7.2.1 Literature Review 155 7.2.2 Hegemonic Masculinity 161 7.3 Muslim Masculinity 166 7.3.1 Creation of Humankind 167 7.3.2 A Division of 'Pairs' 167 7.3.3 Male Responsibility 169 7.3.4 'Equality'? 170 7.3.5 Masculine Qualities 171 7.3.6 Religion and Muslim Male Practices 174 Chapter Eight: Male Views on Masculinity 8.1 Introduction 180 8.2 The Meaning of Masculinity 180 8.3 Fatherhood 185 8.4 Masculine Identity 186 8.5 Doing Masculinity: The Beard 187 8.6 Islam 189 8.7 Female Views on Masculinity 191 8.7.1 The Meaning of Masculinity 191 8.7.2 Male Responsibility 192 8.7.3 Masculinity as Negative 196 8.8 'Because I'm the Man!' Constructing the Role of the Head of the 199 Family 8.8.1 The Position of the Head 200 8.8.2 'A Degree Above Woman' 203 8.9 Role Reversal 206 8.9.1 Female Headed Household's 214 8.10 Conclusion 216 Chapter Nine: The Construction of Homosexuality by Muslim Heterosexuals 9.1 Introduction 219 9.2 Previous Research 219 9.2.1 Homophobia/Heterosexism 220 9.3 Participants Background 221 IV 9.3.1 Islam 223 9.3.2 Participants Religious Views 225 9.4 Sexuality in Islam 229 9.4.1 Discourse of Complementarity 230 9.5 Attitudes Towards Muslim Homosexuals 234 9.6 Conclusion 235 Chapter Ten: On Being Homosexual And Muslim : Conflict And Challenges. 10.1 Introduction 237 10.2 History of Homosexuality 237 10.3 The Construction of Homosexuality 239 10.4 Participants Background 241 10.4.1 The Role of Religion in the Participant's Life 243 10.5 Comparison With White British Gay 'Community' 249 10.6 A Challenge to Islamic Heteronormativity 251 10.7 Marriage 255 10.8 Gay Masculinity 257 10.8.1 Gay 'Ethnic' Masculinity 258 10.9 Challenge to Heteronormativity 260 10.10 Conclusion 266 Chapter Eleven: Conclusion 11.1 Concluding Remarks 268 11.2 Limitations of Study and Future Research 270 11.3 Personal Journey 271 Appendices 274 Glossary of Terms 285 Bibliography 288 Pubiication[s] Produced As a Result of This Thesis 310 L is t of T ables Table 1: Ethnic Origin of Participants 10 Table 2: Educational Level of Participants 11 Table 3: Social Class Category of Participants 12 Table 4: Muslims in Scotland and Glasgow 33 Table 5: Practising or Non-Practising Muslims 51 Table 6: I Would Describe Myself By My: 52 Table 7: Importance of Islam for Participants 52 Table 8: How Often Do You Pray? 55 Table 9: How Frequently Do You Visit the Mosque? 55 Table 10: Fasting in the Month of Ramadan 59 Table 11: Have You Done H ajj 59 Table 12: Have You Done Umrah 59 Table 13: Do You Give Sadaqal 60 Table 14: Do You Give ZakatR 61 Table 15: Female Participants Who Wear the Hijab 106 Table 16: Female Participants Who Did Not Wear the Hijab 110 Table 17: Male and Female Occupational Status 134 Table 18: Female Participants in Part Time Employment 138 Table 19: Female Participants in Full Time Employment 139 Table 20: Views on Homosexuality According to the Gender of Participant 222 Table 21: Level of Education of Participants Against Homosexuality 222 Table 22: Level of Education of Participants Holding Neutral/For 222 Homosexuality Table 23: Non-Practising Muslim Participants Views on Homosexuality 223 Table 24; Homosexual Participants Demographic Information 241 Table 25: Degree of Openness and Relationship Status 242 Table 26: Level of Religiosity of Homosexual Participants 244 Table 27: Level of Religious Practice of Homosexual Participants 244 VI A cknow ledg m ent In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.