OpenAIR@RGU The Open Access Institutional Repository at Robert Gordon University http://openair.rgu.ac.uk Citation Details Citation for the version of the work held in ‘OpenAIR@RGU’: SWINTON, P. A., 2013. A biomechanical investigation of contemporary powerlifting training practices and their potential application to athletic development. Available from OpenAIR@RGU. [online]. Available from: http://openair.rgu.ac.uk Copyright Items in ‘OpenAIR@RGU’, Robert Gordon University Open Access Institutional Repository, are protected by copyright and intellectual property law. If you believe that any material held in ‘OpenAIR@RGU’ infringes copyright, please contact [email protected] with details. The item will be removed from the repository while the claim is investigated. A BIOMECHANICAL INVESTIGATION OF CONTEMPORARY POWERLIFTING TRAINING PRACTICES AND THEIR POTENTIAL APPLICATION TO ATHLETIC DEVELOPMENT PAUL ALAN SWINTON School of Health Sciences Robert Gordon University, UK Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, March 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page I Table of contents II Tables and illustrations VI Acknowledgements X Publications and presentations XI Abbreviations list XIII Glossary XIV Abstract XV CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Resistance training 5 2.1.1 Introduction to resistance training 5 2.1.2 Resistance training models 7 2.1.3 Resistance training and sports performance 18 2.2 Strength athletes 29 2.3 Application of Biomechanics 34 2.3.1 Traditional applications 34 2.3.2 The variable based approach 38 2.4 Summary 54 II CHAPTER 3. CONTEMPORARY TRAINING PRACTICES OF POWERLIFTERS 3.1 Prelude 55 3.2 Introduction 56 3.3 Methods 61 3.4 Results 63 3.4.1 Survey 63 3.4.2 Interviews 66 3.5 Discussion 67 3.6 Summary and Conclusion 84 CHAPTER 4. IDENTIFICATION OF PERFORMANCE VARIABLES 4.1 Prelude 85 4.2 Introduction 86 4.3 Methods 88 4.4 Results 93 4.5 Discussion 101 4.6 Summary and Conclusion 107 CHAPTER 5. BIOMECHANICAL MODEL 5.1 Prelude 108 5.2 Kinematics 109 5.3 Kinetics 120 5.4 Model Evaluation 124 5.5 Summary and Conclusions 126 III CHAPTER 6. EFFECTS OF MOVEMENT VELOCITY 6.1 Prelude 127 6.2 Introduction 128 6.3 Methods 134 6.4 Results 138 6.5 Discussion 146 6.6 Summary and Conclusion 153 CHAPTER 7. MANIPULATION OF THE EXTERNAL RESISTANCE 7.1 Prelude 154 7.2 Introduction 155 7.3 Methods 161 7.3.1 Study 1: Analysis of external kinematics and kinetics of deadlifts performed 161 with and without chain resistance 7.3.2 Study 2: A biomechanical comparison of straight and hexagonal 164 barbell deadlifts 7.4 Results 167 7.4.1 Study 1: Analysis of external kinematics and kinetics of deadlifts performed 167 with and without chain resistance 7.4.2 Study 2: A biomechanical comparison of straight and hexagonal 171 barbell deadlifts 7.5 Discussion 177 7.6 Summary and Conclusion 183 IV CHAPTER 8. ALTERING MOVEMENT STRATEGIES 8.1 Prelude 184 8.2 Introduction 185 8.3 Methods 189 8.4 Results 192 8.5 Discussion 201 8.6 Summary and Conclusion 207 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK 9.1 Summary 208 9.2 Conclusions 212 9.2.1 Limitations 214 9.3 Recommendations for future work 214 APPENDICES Appendix I 217 Appendix II 222 Appendix III 223 REFERENCES 226 V TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Table 2.1: Acute variable guidelines 10 Table 2.2: Example means classification for various athletes 11 Table 2.3: Methodological principles and characteristics of training methods 15 Table 2.4: Methodological principles and characteristics of training methods 17 Table 2.5: Summary of previous studies investigating the effects of strength 21 training on sprinting performance Table 2.6: Review of longitudinal studies investigating the effects of resistance 28 training with highly trained cyclists Table 2.7: Key technique points for the squat 35 Table 2.8: Loads that maximise power production in various exercises 46 Table 3.1: Summary of item responses 63 Table 4.1: Anthropometric, strength and performance results (mean ± SD) 93 Table 4.2: Intercorrelations of biomechanical variables collected during the deadlift 94 Table 4.3: Intercorrelations of biomechanical variables collected during the jump 94 squat Table 4.4: Intercorrelations of anthropometric variables 95 Table 4.5: Correlations of body mass and absolute values of 96 biomechanical variables Table 4.6: Correlations of body mass and isometric scaling of 96 biomechanical variables Table 4.7: Correlations of body mass and allometric scaling of 97 biomechanical variables Table 4.8: Relationships between performance and biomechanical variables 98 collected during the deadlift Table 4.9: Relationships between performance and biomechanical variables 98 collected during the jump squat VI Table 4.10: Best single-, two- and three-predictor regression models for 100 performance measures combining anthropometric, maximum strength and biomechanical variables collected during the deadlift or jump squat. Table 6.1: Displacement and velocity characteristics of maximum and 138 sub-maximum velocity deadlifts (mean±SD) Table 6.2: Sagittal angles of maximum and sub-maximum velocity deadlifts 140 at the start of movement (mean±SD) Table 6.3: Comparison of force, velocity and power data obtained during 141 the power clean and deadlift (mean±SD) Table 6.4: Acceleration and kinetic energy data for the power clean and 144 deadlift (mean±SD) Table 6.5: Sagittal plane angles for the power clean and deadlift at the 145 start of movement (mean±SD) Table 6.6: Peak joint- velocity, moment and power data for the power 145 clean and deadlift (mean±SD) Table 7.1: Joint angles at the starting position of the SBD and HBD averaged 171 across loads (mean±SD) Table 7.2: Peak joint moments for the SBD and HBD across the loading spectrum 172 Table 7.3: Peak joint powers for the SBD and HBD across the loading spectrum 173 Table 7.4: Resistance moment arms for the SBD and HBD averaged across loads 175 Table 7.5: Relative time accelerating resistance during the SBD and HBD 176 Table 8.1: Anterior-posterior displacements calculated across the eccentric 193 and concentric phases (mean ± SD) Table 8.2: Joint angles at the start of the concentric phase (mean ± SD) 194 Table 8.3: Peak joint moments and corresponding moment arms (mean ± SD) 197 Table 8.4: Peak joint powers (mean ± SD) 198 Table 8.5: External kinematics and kinetics (mean ± SD) 200 VII Figure 1.1: Schematic outline of the applied research model for the sport sciences 4 and corresponding thesis chapters Figure 2.1: Schematic overview of classical strength/power periodization model 9 Figure 2.2: Representative images of elite bodybuilders, Olympic weightlifters, 30 Powerlifters and strongman athletes Figure 2.3: Summary of the major concepts used in the variable based 39 biomechanical analysis of resistance training Figure 3.1: Analysis of sub-maximum loads used for speed repetitions 65 in the squat, bench press and deadlift Figure 3.2: Analysis of the use of chains and band with squat, bench press, 65 deadlift or assistance exercises. Figure 4.1: Rendered polygon shell used to measure linear anthropometric 90 measurements Figure 5.1: Marker set used for project 112 Figure 5.2: Representation of the standard lower body gait analysis 114 marker set and kinematic model Figure 5.3: Hip joint centre calculation, based on Davis model 116 Figure 5.4: Illustration of Euler angle convention employed 118 PO Figure 5.5: Schematic overview of the inverse dynamics approach 120 Figure 5.6: Planar free body diagram illustrating the kinetics of a 122 link-segment model used for inverse dynamics analysis Figure 6.1: Representative force-time curves of maximum and 139 sub-maximum velocity deadlifts Figure 6.2: Representative force-time curves of the power clean and deadlift 142 VIII Figure 6.3: Representative force-time and knee joint-time curves obtained 143 during the power clean Figure 6.4: Distinct force-time and knee-joint time curves obtained during 143 the deadlift (single individual) Figure 7.1: The hexagonal- , cambered- and safety squat-barbell 156 Figure 7.2: Kinematic and kinetic data for chain conditions (MAX20, MAX40) 168 with 30, 50 and 70% 1RM loads. Figure 7.3: Mean vertical ground reaction forces during the concentric phase 169 of MAX, MAX20, MAX40 conditions. Figure 7.4: Velocity during the concentric phase of maximum repetitions 170 (MAX, MAX20, MAX40) with the 50% 1RM load. Figure 7.5: Barbell path during the SBD (left) and HBD (right) across 174 the loading spectrum Figure 7.6: Load-force, load-velocity and load-joint power relationships. 176 Figure 8.1: Traditional Squat (top left), Powerlifting Squat (top right) and 188 Box Squat (bottom) Figure 8.2: Representative joint angle-time curve for the traditional squat 195 Figure 8.3: Representative joint angle-time curve for a distinct movement 195 pattern observed during the powerlifting squat Figure 8.4: Representative joint angle-time curve for a second distinct movement 196 pattern observed during the powerlifting squat Figure 8.5: Group average force time curves obtained with a 70% 1RM load 199 IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervision team, Dr Arthur Stewart, Professor Ray Lloyd, Dr Ioannis Agouris, and Dr Justin Keogh. In particular, I would like to thank Dr Stewart for securing this project and for his faith and time that he has dedicated to me since I was an undergraduate student, your actions have made a major impact. Also, to Professor Lloyd, whose contribution to this project has been invaluable and who continues to be an excellent mentor.