PDF hosted at the Radboud Repository of the Radboud University Nijmegen The following full text is a publisher's version. For additional information about this publication click this link. http://hdl.handle.net/2066/143631 Please be advised that this information was generated on 2021-10-05 and may be subject to change. Cultural and intellectual property protection of Tongan traditional cultural expressions This research was funded by the Wenner-Gren Foundation and support provided by the Centre for Pacific and Asian Studies of the Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands. Cultural and intellectual property protection of Tongan traditional cultural expressions / Malia Talakai Thesis Nijmegen - With ref. - With figures and photographs - With summary in Dutch. Subject headings: Cultural and intellectual property protection of Tongan traditional cultural expressions. Cover photograph by Sione Puloka: Juliann, Charity and Ivy perform an ula during a 21st birthday celebration in Sydney, 2009. © Malia Talakai, 2015 ISBN: 978-94-6259-770-9 [email protected] Printed by: Ipskamp Drukkers Nijmegen No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other means, without prior written permission from the proprietor. Cultural and intellectual property protection of Tongan traditional cultural expressions Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. dr. Th.L.M. Engelen, volgens besluit van het college van decanen in het openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 21 oktober 2015 om 12:30 uur precies door Malia Talakai geboren op 24 mei 1968 te Nuku`alofa (Koninkrijk Tonga) Promotoren: Prof. dr. A.H.M. van Meijl Prof. dr. A.P. Borsboom Manuscriptcommissie: Prof. dr. H.J.M. Venbrux Prof. dr. G. Senft (Universität zu Köln, Duitsland) Dr. A.T.M. Schreiner (Universiteit van Amsterdam) Cultural and intellectual property protection of Tongan traditional cultural expressions Doctoral Thesis to obtain the degree of doctor from Radboud University Nijmegen on the authority of the Rector Magnificus prof. dr. Th.L.M. Engelen, according to the decision of the Council of Deans to be defended in public on Wednesday 21 October 2015 at 12:30 hours by Malia Talakai Born on 24 May, 1968 in Nuku`alofa (Kingdom of Tonga) Supervisors: Prof. dr. A.H.M. van Meijl Prof. dr. A.P. Borsboom Doctoral Thesis Committee: Prof. dr. H.J.M. Venbrux Prof. dr. G. Senft (University of Cologne, Germany) Dr. A.T.M. Schreiner (University of Amsterdam) Acknowledgements and dedication This thesis is dedicated to my children Juliann, Charity, Alexis and Frances. My dream of doing a PhD became a reality when I was offered a Fellowship by the Wenner- Gren Foundation to conduct pre-doctoral studies in an area of anthropology that is under- represented. My interest in both the PhD and the Fellowship was to advance in the area of legal anthropology. The Fellowship enabled me to spend time at Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands on a pre-doctoral study that would lead into PhD research. The pre-doctoral studies were followed by years of research and fieldwork in Tonga and in Auckland, New Zealand. It was a huge honour for me and much relieved that I was able to be supported financially to do this PhD abroad. I would therefore like to acknowledge my sincere appreciation and gratitude to the Wenner-Gren Foundation for their support. I was interested in legal anthropology so I could combine together my background in anthropology and law. Cultural and intellectual property quickly became an area of focus as a result of first hand experiences in the misappropriation of traditional cultural expressions of Pacific Island peoples in some retail businesses in the wider Auckland area in New Zealand. Legal anthropology is a discipline that is undeveloped both in anthropology and law and trying to identify a host institution proved very challenging. However, after numerous attempts at finding a research centre that has a research focus in the area of cultural heritage, cultural and intellectual property, I found myself at the Centre for Pacific and Asian Studies at Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands. I am appreciative and thankful for the support of my promotores Professor Toon van Meijl and Professor Ad Borsboom, and staff and colleagues at the Centre for Pacific and Asian Studies. I would like to further acknowledge the support that Professor Toon van Meijl has offered, which has enabled me to complete this work under some challenging circumstances. I am thankful as well to Professor Dr. Hūfanga `Okusitino Māhina, the late Dr. Maxwell Rimoldi, Dr. Linita Manu`tu, Dr. Mere Kepa and Professor Dr. Tevita Ka`ili for all the support and encouragements they have given me during the past years and for believing in me. I am also forever indebted to my family who have been my biggest supporters. My parents, Maile and Savieti, who are no longer here today but have hugely influenced the person I am today, and i my second parents, the late `Isikeli Filipa and Lesieli Matangi, who cared for me and my sister when we moved to New Zealand to go to school. A big thank you to my children Juliann, Charity, Alexis and Frances; my sisters Satua Siale-Teu, Ane Talakai and her husband Sekonaia Mo`unga who have been second parents to my children; Jill Hopgood and Kirsten Wall; my brothers, the late Siosiua Tu`akoi, Sione Puloka, Vilisoni and Tevita Talakai; cousins Manamoana Leahmann, Atelaite Laukaupo`uli, Liliani Halapio-Finau, Carl Hill-Willis; nieces and nephews Ivy Murray, `Amelia Talakai, Sela Fekitoa Laukaupo`uli, Christina Lo`amanu, Yolana Pelenato, Rodney Halapio, Siosaia Laukaupouli, Timothy Hopgood and Will Hopgood Lypers. I sincerely acknowledge the support and love of my global family and friends who have also supported me along the way: Frances Tausinga and Lausi`i Hala`ufia, `Amelia Pelenato and Willis Lo`amanu, Cheaf Lee Fakavamoeanga, Siaosi Finau, Beverley Ogburn-Bryant, Katalin Baranyi, Fifita Tui`ile`ila-Lindsay, Kirsten Wall, Stephania Bobeldijk, `Amelia and Miti Kinahoi- Siamomua, Linda Aumua, Dr. Nuhisifa Williams, Professor Evangelia Papoutsaki, Dr. Siosifa Ika, Malama Solomona, Lisa Fuemana, Manu`a Poloai, Marion Muliaumaseali`i, Falaniko Tominiko, Salote Austin, Michelle Niu-Teo, Kolokesa Māhina-Tuai, Mele Ha`amoa `Alatini, Kathleen Tuai-Ta`ufo`ou, Ana Pahulu, Anna Cullen, Dr. Karlo Mila, Losa Moata`ane, Winston Hiliau, Fahina Tavake Pasi, `Anapesi Ka`ili and Lavinia Taumopeau. `Oku `oatu heni `a e fakamālō loto hounga mo`oni ki he Tonga kotoa na`e lava ke ke tokoni mai mo kau mai ki he fakatotolo ko `eni. `Oku `ikai ke `i ai ha lea fe`unga ke fakamalo`ia `aki ho`o mou `ofa mo e tokoni na`e fai. Ko ho`o mou tokoni `oku ou faka`amu `e tokoni ia ki he to`utupu Tonga kotoa pe he kolope. Fakatauange ke fai tapuekina ki moutolu `e he `Otua. `Ofa lahi atu mo e fakamālō! ii Table of contents Acknowledgements and dedication i List of acronyms vii Introduction 1 Setting the scene and locating this thesis 1 A study in legal anthropology 6 Encountering intellectual property 8 Thesis statement 14 Significance of this thesis 14 Overview of thesis and chapters 15 Chapter 1: Assessing intellectual and cultural property discourses 17 1.1 Introduction 17 1.2 What is intellectual property? 17 1.3 Characteristics of intellectual property rights 18 1.4 Justification for intellectual property 18 1.5 TRIPS Agreement and categories of intellectual property 19 1.6 Debates over intellectual property 23 1.7 Concerns of Pacific peoples 27 1.8 Tonga and the World Trade Organisation 30 1.9 Tonga’s legal history and intellectual property law reforms 31 1.10 Conclusion 36 Chapter 2: Research design and methodology 38 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 Theoretical frameworks 39 iii 2.3 Development stage and human ethics application 43 2.4 Legal anthropological ethnography 44 2.5 Fieldwork sites 46 2.6 Participants 48 2.7 Use of Tongan language and cultural markers 48 2.8 Analysis 49 2.9 Limitations 49 2.10 Conclusion 50 Chapter 3: Koloa tukufakaholo / Tongan traditional cultural expressions 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Koloa tukufakaholo / Tongan cultural heritage 54 3.3 Tongan traditional cultural expressions 57 3.4 Traditional arts of Tonga 60 3.5 Culture of inequality reinforced in the arts 64 3.6 Gendering traditional Tongan arts 66 3.7 Tufunga / Material arts 69 3.8 Nimamea`a / Fine arts 82 3.9 Faiva / Performing arts 102 3.10 Teuteu, heliaki / Beauty and aesthetics 122 3.11 Presentation and distribution of men’s work 128 3.12 Presentation of women’s work 132 3.13 Tradition as sources of creativity 136 3.14 Conclusion 142 Chapter 4: Who owns traditional cultural expressions? 144 4.1 Introduction 144 iv 4.2 Ownership in traditional Tongan society 145 4.3. Development of liberal ownership 150 4.4 Ownership of intellectual property 153 4.5 Ownership expressed in the Tongan law 156 4.6 Contemporary perspectives on ownership 161 4.7 Contemporary claims to ownership 172 4.8 Conclusion 175 Chapter 5: Protection of Tongan traditional cultural expressions 178 5.1 Introduction 178 5.2 Definitions, concepts and meanings 179 5.3 Safeguarding and protection 184 5.4 Safeguarding and protection in Tongan contexts 190 5.5 Means of protection 195 5.6 Why should traditional cultural expressions be protected? 202 5.7 Whom should traditional cultural expressions be protected from? 208 5.8 What is fair and feasible to protect? 209 5.9 Who can protect traditional cultural expressions? 212 5.10 Challenges facing