University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2008 Gold Before the Palaces: Crafting Jewelry and Social Identity in Minoan Crete Jane Hickman University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons, and the Social and Cultural Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Hickman, Jane, "Gold Before the Palaces: Crafting Jewelry and Social Identity in Minoan Crete" (2008). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 1540. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/1540 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/1540 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Gold Before the Palaces: Crafting Jewelry and Social Identity in Minoan Crete Abstract During the period c. 2000 – 1800 BC, the first civilization was established in urE ope, as illustrated by the development of palace-centered societies in Minoan Crete. However, the extent to which stratified society existed before the second millennium BC is unclear. This study focuses on the development of ranked society in prepalatial Crete, as evidenced by the manufacturing, use, and deposition of gold and silver jewelry. Indications of social stratification are also explored in the material remains of sites where jewelry was recovered. Research objectives include an investigation of where, how, and why new forms of jewelry appeared in Crete and the impact jewelry had on the forging of individual and group identities. Jewelry is evaluated utilizing contextual, formal, technological, and functional analyses. In addition, human agency and instances of individual decision-making are revealed in association with the production and use of these objects. To place prepalatial Minoan jewelry in perspective, a comparison of this material with jewelry recovered from sites in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans is conducted. The appearance of gold and silver jewelry in Crete during the third millennium BC was an indigenous development with regional and site-specific ariation.v However, raw materials and perhaps the idea of making jewelry from precious metals were imported to Crete, most likely from the Near East. All prepalatial jewelry was recovered from funerary contexts; it was frequently found with other elite grave goods such as ivory seals, stone vessels, and copper/bronze daggers. Evidence suggests that objects such as diadems were used in public ceremonies, perhaps associated with ritual spaces at cemeteries. Signs of ranked society in prepalatial Crete include the presence of symbols of authority such as gold diadems, appliqués for clothing, and a scepter; finds of suspected heirlooms, indicating inherited status; the organized construction of monumental tombs; differentiation in tomb size, placement, and associated grave goods; and craft specialization in the production of jewelry, stone vases, and seals. One may conclude that ranked society existed in Crete before palaces were constructed. Gold jewelry was a tangible, enduring way to demonstrate membership in emerging social groups. Degree Type Dissertation Degree Name Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Graduate Group Anthropology First Advisor Richard L. Zettler Subject Categories Archaeological Anthropology | Social and Cultural Anthropology This dissertation is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/1540 GOLD BEFORE THE PALACES: CRAFTING JEWELRY AND SOCIAL IDENTITY IN MINOAN CRETE Jane Hickman A DISSERTATION in Anthropology Presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2008 _________s/Richard L. Zettler_________ Supervisor of Dissertation _________s/Robert Schuyler___________ Graduate Group Chairperson COPYRIGHT Jane Hickman 2008 iii For Michael iv Acknowledgments Many people in both the United States and Greece have helped with this project. I would especially like to thank my dissertation committee. Richard L. Zettler offered sound advice on content and crucial help in obtaining the funding necessary to complete this study. Bernard Wailes has been an advisor and friend since my first days as Penn; his thoughtful reading of my dissertation and support through the years has been invaluable. Philip P. Betancourt encouraged and championed my desire to study prepalatial jewelry. Many summers were spent with Dr. B in Crete, which facilitated my travel throughout Greece and provided my first glimpses of some of the jewelry in this study. His insightful comments on multiple drafts of this dissertation helped enormously. James D. Muhly, an unofficial member of my committee, was instrumental in narrowing the focus of my study to Crete, while making sure I understood the wider context in which the jewelry should be placed. His keen interest in metals has been contagious, and the bibliography he provided added depth and breadth to my research. I have been fortunate to work with many individuals in Greece who helped with aspects of this project. The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, under the directorship of James D. Muhly and Stephen V. Tracy, and with the able help of Maria Pilali and Bob Bridges, provided guidance on obtaining permits necessary for the study of Greek artifacts. The Greek Ministry of Culture kindly gave me permission to study objects in 2002 and 2005. Photographs of Aegean jewelry were taken by Chronis Papanikolopolous, a member of the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP) publication team. Thank you to INSTAP for providing this important service. Chronie’s sense of v humor and infectious laugh made long shooting schedules in sometimes difficult circumstances not only bearable but also enjoyable. Tom Brogan and Eleanor Huffman, of INSTAPEC, must also be acknowledged for their advice and encouragement. During the course of my research, I met many Greek archaeologists, conservators, and museum officials who provided access to Aegean jewelry. At the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, thanks are due to Lena Papazoglou-Manioudaki, curator of the prehistoric collection; Eleni Konstantinidi, assistant to the curator; Eleni Morati, photo archivist; and Maria Kontaki and Pandelis Feleris, conservators. At the Herakleion Museum in Crete, I wish to thank directors Alexandra Karetsou and Nota Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki; Eleni Banou and Vasso Marsellou, who greatly facilitated my study of multiple objects; Antonis Vasilakis, who answered questions about jewelry he knew so well; and the guards, especially Georgos Agelakis, aka Big George. At the Hagios Nikolaos Museum in Crete, Director Vili Apostolakou kindly provided access to jewelry from Mochlos. At archaeological museums in Syros and Naxos, the directors and staff were most accommodating, especially Ioanna Konstandopoulou. Costis Davaras provided encouragement as well as permission to study jewelry from Mochlos. Konstantinos Zachos provided permission to study the gold strip from his excavation at the Zas Cave. Many individuals offered pertinent comments, encouragement, and lively discussion while I was in Greece: Heidi Dierckx, Floyd McCoy, Polly Muhly, David Reese, and Evie Sikla. A special thank you must go to Tristan Carter, Yannis Papadatos, Thea Politis, and Claus Reinholdt for ongoing conversations regarding their research. At the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, many thanks to Larysa Carr and Zoe Beckerman of the Department of Anthropology; Lynn Grant, Ginny Greene, vi Lynn Makowsky, and Naomi Miller of the University Museum; John Weeks and Anita Fahringer of the Museum library; Hilda Pring at Van Pelt; Amy Zoll and Jesse Turnbull in Computer Support Services; and Fred Hiebert, formerly of the Department of Anthropology. Thank you to Temple University, whose grants paid for many of my trips to Greece. Colleagues who answered questions related to my research included Susan Ferrence, Beth Ann Judas, Tanya McCullough, Linda Meiberg, Elizabeth Shank, Brenda Stone, Louise Verstegen, Phyllis Wachter, and Gayla Weng. Thanks also to Kim Benzel of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. In Baltimore, thanks go to Sabine Albersmeier and Chris Henry of the Walters Art Museum; Glenn Schwartz, professor at Johns Hopkins and excavator at Umm el-Marra; and the staff at Hopkins’ Eisenhower Library. Yanni Spiropoulos did his best to teach me Modern Greek. The support of family and friends – especially Bill, Kirsten, Leslie, Sei, Emily, Molly, Henry, Cindy, Mili, Pat, Wylie, and Sadie – was most appreciated. Financial support was provided by the Fulbright Foundation/Institute for International Education, the Critical Writing Program at Penn, the Louis J. Kolb Foundation of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (thanks especially to Jeremy Sabloff and Margaret Spencer), and the RM Furlong Foundation. This dissertation is dedicated to my husband and partner, Michael, who has been by my side as I evolved from a businesswoman to an archaeologist. He has helped in numerous ways, from assisting on photo shoots to attending Greek language classes with me to traveling widely and for long periods in Greece. Michael cast his lot with me thirty years ago, and his support has never wavered. vii Abstract GOLD BEFORE THE PALACES: CRAFTING JEWELRY AND SOCIAL IDENTITY IN MINOAN CRETE Jane Hickman Richard L. Zettler During the period c. 2000 – 1800 BC, the first civilization was established in Europe, as illustrated