Structure Class Words Structure-class words, sometimes called function words, are words that signal how the form- class words (sometimes referred to as “content words”) relate to each other in a sentence. There are far fewer structure-class words than form-class words; but there are no easy formal tests to identify them, and, since they themselves help determine function, functional tests are of limited value. In general, it is necessary to memorise lists of words that belong to the various parts of speech in the structure-class category. In some cases, structure-class words function in more than one capacity, and, in these cases functional tests can help you determine which part of speech the word is functioning as in the sentence. Determiners A determiner is a structure-class word that precedes and modifies a noun. Prototypical examples are: the definite article: the the indefinite article: a/an Previous students have brought to my attention that many teachers teach that the articles are adjectives. You can see why from the above definition. But they are not the same. For one thing, they are structure class, whereas adjectives are form class. For another, they group with other determiners and share important differences from adjectives: • determiners don’t occur with any adjective-forming derivational suffixes, such as –able or –ly. • determiners don’t have comparative or superlative forms: tall, taller, tallest; this, *thiser, *thisest. • determiners will not fit in both slots of the adjective test frame sentence: The ____ man seems very ____. • determiners always precede any adjective or noun modifiers of a noun, as does the in the expensive car stereo. There are six main groups of determiners: Articles a/an, the Demonstratives this, these, that, those Possessives my, our, your, his, her, its, their Indefinites some, any no, every, other, another, many, more, most, enough, few, less, much, either, neither, several, all, both, each Cardinal numbers one, two, three, four,... Ordinal numbers first, second, third,....last Articles The use of the definite or the indefinite article depends on whether or not the speaker (writer) refers to a specific entity also known to the hearer (reader). If both speaker and hearer understand a specific entity the definite article or a demonstrative like this or that will be used: Please was the/this/that car. However, if the speaker has no particular car in mind, the indefinite article or other indefinite determiner will occur: Please was a/every car. A thousand years ago English had no articles; instead, the word that was used for the definite meaning, and the word one was used for the indefinite meaning. This is actually quite important. Like the English of the past, many languages today lack articles, so people who do not speak English as their first language may have particular problems in using them. Some common problems: Omission of the indefinite article: *I would like [a] large Coke. Omission of the definite article: *Would you like [the] green or [the] red one? A particular problem for many students is the fact that some determiners have the same forms as some pronouns (see below). Consider the following sentences: 1. Have you seen these new shoe styles? Have you seen these? 2. This house will be yours someday. This will all be yours someday. 3. Some people like it hot, and others like it cold. Some like it hot, and some like it cold. The problem is that these words don’t change their form but do change their function. It is thus imperative to identify whether their function is that of a determiner or a pronoun. Possessives can actually signal changes in function with changes in form: My car is blue. So is mine. (substitute your/yours, her/hers, our/ours, their/theirs) However, the words his and its do not change. Auxiliaries Auxiliaries were originally prototypical verbs which over the course of time have come to function like structure-class words. Because of their origins, they are often called auxiliary verbs. Auxiliaries are hard to define succinctly. By way of working definition, you can assume that they are used to signal that the main verb is coming in a verb phrase (a group of words that function like a verb), or VP for short. There are several types of auxiliaries. The modal auxiliaries can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, and must are almost never used as form-class words in English, as you can tell by the fact that they never change their forms. The verbs have, be, and do can be used both as normal verbs and as auxiliary verbs. Here is a list of all the auxiliaries in English. Modal Auxiliaries Have Be Do can have be do could has am does will had is did would having are done shall was doing should were may been might being must Some things to remember: • Any word not given in the table above is not an auxiliary. • Just because the form is listed in the table above does not mean that the word is an auxiliary. Forms of have, be, and do are all frequently used as main verbs. Modal Auxiliaries Modals have the following characteristics: 1. They signal meanings such as condition, probability, obligation, and possibility. 2. They always precede a main verb, as well as any other auxiliaries in the verb phrase: a. The fireworks display should begin in five minutes. b. That awful noise must have lasted for three hours. c. On 2 January, she will have been serving as chancellor for ten years. Occasionally, the main verb may appear to be missing, as in She wouldn’t like it, but I might. The main verb can be omitted only where its meaning is understood; this process is called ellipsis (and the main verb is elided). The words shall and will are often used to indicate futurity. Eighteenth-century prescriptivists, troubled by the existence of two words with the same meaning established rules for “proper” usage which dictated shall be used only after I and we, and you only after you, he, she, and it. Students are sometimes still taught this rule, but few people use it consistently. Forms like could, would, should, and might were once the past tense forms of can, will, shall, and may (must is also a past tense form). However, in the process of becoming auxiliaries they have lost their present and past time meanings. Technically, will and shall are present tense forms, even though they have future time meaning. Auxiliary Have Before we look at auxiliary have, we have to examine a new concept: verb aspect. Some people find verb aspect a troublesome concept and often confuse it with tense. Tense refers to time, present or past. Aspect refers to action, continuing or completed. Continuing aspect is referred to as progressive, and completed aspect as perfect. Progressive aspect is signalled by the present participle {-ing} form of the verb. Perfect aspect is signalled by the {-en} past particple form of the verb. Progressive: I am going home Perfect: I have gone home When we refer to the “aspect” of the entire verb phrase, we refer to the tense of the auxiliary (or the future sense of will) plus the aspect of the main verb: Present Perfect: I have gone home Past Perfect: I had gone home Future Perfect: I will have gone home As an auxiliary, have always occurs before another verb in the past participle {-en} form. It is used to express the perfect aspect of the verb. Warning: have can also function as a true verb: e.g. Kelly has the dictionary. Make sure that you learn to identify the difference. When functioning as a main verb, have will not be followed by another verb. Be As an auxiliary, be always occurs before another verb in the present participle {-ing} form. It is used to express the progressive aspect of the verb. Present Perfect: I am going home Past Perfect: I was going home Future Perfect: I will be going home The auxiliary be may also be followed by the past participle {-en}. In this case it signals the passive voice (which we’ll look at in depth later). At each game, the national anthem is sung by the crowd. This letter was written by the school principal. Warning: be may function as a true verb: e.g. The shop is open. Make sure that you learn to identify the difference. When functioning as a main verb, be will not be followed by another verb. Do Auxiliary do has three main functions: 1. The formation of questions in some types of sentences: Does he leave tomorrow? 2. The formation of negatives in some types of sentences: They don’t want that one. 3. The formation of emphatic sentences: I do like that one. We’ll study these functions in greater detail later in the course. Do may also function as true verb. Its general meaning is something “to perform” or “to cause”: I’ll do it, It’ll do you good. As a main verb, do may also get its meaning vicariously from another verb, as in We want it more than they do (i.e. ‘want it’). Qualifiers and Intensifiers Qualifiers (and intensifiers) usually precede adjectives or adverbs, increasing or decreasing the quality signified by they words they modify (more colourful, less frequently). You can use a frame sentence to test whether a word is a qualifier: The handsome man seems _____ handsome. You can supply very, quite, rather, etc. Many qualifiers appear similar to adverbs; however, you will find that they do not pass many of the adverb tests.