Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Founding Fathers, Chief Joseph, Sitting Bull, Geronimo, Red Cloud George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, art by David C. Behrens Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Indian Wars raged from 1869 to 1890; conflicts revolved around land. • Battles raged from the Dakotas to Idaho and from Montana to New Mexico. • Weapons technology gave the United States Army a significant advantage. • White America’s booming population dwarfed the Native Americans. • In 1865, an estimated 15 million buffalo roamed the Great Plains. By 1900, the species was nearly extinct. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • As settler encroached upon territories assured by treaties, Native Americans grew resentful of forced relocations. • Rational debate became an anachronistic exercise and civic militias abetted U.S. Army troops to doggedly purse ends that they deemed to justify any means. • November 1864 Sand Creek Massacre of Cheyenne saw Colorado Volunteers surround the Indian camp and commit unspeakable brutalities. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • News of Sand Creek spread to other Indian communities who decided to meet the White threat with force. • In 1866, Sioux Warriors ambushed troops attempting to complete the Bozeman Trail in Montana. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie brought a temporary end to hostilities and guaranteed large tracts of land as Sioux and Cheyenne Territory by the United States Government. • A short-lived peace. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • In 1874, General George Armstrong Custer led a scientific expedition into the Black Hills of South Dakota. • “There’s gold in them thar hills!” • White prospectors swarmed the hills that belonged to the Sioux Nation. • Sitting Bull (upper left) and Crazy Horse (lower left) encouraged their nation to fight the invaders. • The Sioux and the Cheyenne came together in a rare display of Native American unanimity Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Custer ordered to locate and curtail Sioux actions until reinforcements arrived. • On 25 June 1876, after finding a small village, Custer ordered an attack on what was the 3,000 strong Sioux and Cheyenne main force. • Led by Crazy Horse, Native American forces massacred within hours the entire Seventh Cavalry and their commander. • The Indian victories proved short-lived; Crazy Horse surrendered and Sitting Bull escaped to Canada. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • The year after Custer's defeat, the Nez Percé Indians of Idaho fell victim to western expansion in pursuit of gold. • After reaching a stalemate with U.S. Army, Chief Joseph (left) led his followers on a 1700 mile trek to join Sitting Bull in Canada. • Forced by weather and privation just short of the border, the Nez Percé were relocated to Oklahoma where almost half the tribe perished from disease. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • The Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889 saw Native American land guaranteed by treaty swallowed up by hordes of White settlers. • The U.S. government opened up two million acres of unassigned tribal lands to homesteaders. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • (Left) Geronimo (Goyathlay, "one who yawns"), Chiricahua Apache. (1829-1909). • I was warmed by the sun, rocked by the winds and sheltered by the trees as other Indian babes. • I cannot think that we are useless or God would not have created us. • I was born on the prairies where the wind blew free and there was nothing to break the light of the sun. I was born where there were no enclosures. • Fought Mexico and the U.S. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • In the summer of 1850 Mexican soldiers slaughter Geronimo’a tribe including his family. • Joined a group of Apaches called the Chiricahuas. • Visions tell Geronimo he is invulnerable to white man’s weapons. • During the revenge attacks Mexicans soldiers cried to St. Jerome for mercy. • Goyathlay renamed "Geronimo." Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Settlers pour into Apache land (New Mexico and Arizona) in search of precious metals. • Geronimo and Cochise lead retaliatory attacks. • In 1876, Chiricahuas ordered from their mountain homeland to the San Carlos Reservation; Geronimo refused. • After his 1878 capture, in 1879, Geronimo agrees to try reservation life (2 years). • Entered into peace talks with General George Crook who was replaced by General Nelson Miles who seeks a decisive military victory. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Five thousand soldiers aided by 500 scouts tracked Geronimo. • When this strategy failed, Miles began negotiations with Chiricahuas. • In September 1886, Geronimo signed a peace treaty and the Indian Wars ended. • Chiricahuas and the scouts who tracked them became prisoners of war. • Shipped across country to Florida, to Alabama, and finally to Oklahoma. • Geronimo brought to 1905 inauguration of President Theodore Roosevelt. • Myths surround his remains. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEjipaS75WM Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dc7fZonjD1M Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Sitting Bull skeptical Ghost Dance’s promised powers. • White officials became alarmed at the religious fervor and activism and in December 1890 banned the Ghost Dance on Lakota reservations. • U.S. military prepared for battle. • Ghost Dance believers flee to northwest corner of the Pine Ridge reservation and invite Sitting Bull to join them • Fulfilling one of his dreams, Sitting Bull is killed in altercation with tribal police. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • General Miles ordered Miniconjou Chief Big Foot arrested (left, Big Foot dead in the snow; among the first to die on 29 December 1890). • Seventh Calvary sent to locate the renegades; who offer no resistance upon capture. • Four Hotchkiss cannons placed in positions around the camp. • Soldiers counted around 500; Sioux 350, all but 120 women and children. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • (Right) An Army officer looking at the Wounded Knee dead. • On morning of 29 December soldiers entered Sioux camp and demanded all firearms be surrendered. • In spite of some dissent, most Sioux acquiesce. • Close-quarter fighting breaks out, Sioux try to escape, Hotchkiss guns cut them down. • 150 Indians killed and 50 wounded; 25 soldiers killed and 39 wounded. • Their commander acquitted of killing the defenseless and 7th Cavalry received 20 medals of honor for the Battle of Wounded Knee Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Around 900 B.C., the Anasazi, ancestors of the modern Hopi Indians, built stone and adobe pueblos. • (Left) Mesa Verde settlement in Colorado, 13th century. • Most affluent of the pre- Columbian Native Americans lived in the Pacific Northwest Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Upon their arrival, Europeans did not find an empty continent. • Estimates of the number of Native Americans living in what is now the U.S. in 1492 range from 2 to 18 million—generally go with lower than higher. • European diseases, particularly smallpox, ravage native American population. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • (Left) Native American Council Chamber. • Indian customs and culture extremely varied to match the many environments in which they lived. • Many eastern tribes hunters and gathers with some farming. • Religious beliefs tied to nature and the elements. • Native American life revolved around the clan and then the tribe. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • In mid-18th century, France enjoyed good relations with a number of Native-American tribes in Canada and along the Great Lakes. • European conflict spilled into North America—the French and Indian War (1756-1763). • French territory penned in British colonizers to eastern seaboard. • France’s defeat left the Native Americans to a future where they had to endure encroachments from what would become the U.S.A. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • At end of 18th century, many native American tribes united to form the Western Confederacy and score major victories. • In August 1794. General "Mad Anthony" Wayne leads American forces to victory in the Battle of Fallen Timbers (near present-day Toledo, OH). • 1795’s Treaty of Greenville acknowledged Native American land ownership and renounced land acquisition through conquest. • Shawnee leader Tecumseh (left) brought several tribes together and drew serious military attention until his death in 1813. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • In early 19th century, General and then President Andrew Jackson central to U.S. and Native American relations. • In 1814, Jackson’s Tennessee militia suppressed a Creek uprising who ceded 2/3 of their land to U.S. • Jackson also engaged with Seminoles in Florida. • President Monroe’s policy of relocation of tribes to west of Mississippi River by Jackson’s 1830 Indian Removal Act. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • By 1830s the Cherokee used their own written language, printed newspapers and elected leaders to tribal councils. • When Georgia threatened to confiscate their lands, Cherokee turned to Supreme Court. • Georgia officials ignored Chief Justice John Marshall’s decision and President Jackson refused to enforce it. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • In 1835, some Cherokee leaders agreed to accept remunerations in exchange for relocation. • The followers of Chief John Ross resisted.. • At gunpoint, 20,000 Cherokees were marched westward on the infamous Trail of Tears. • An estimated 5,000 died on the march from Georgia to Oklahoma. Explorations in American History: A Trail of Tears • Native Americans and European settlers had been at odds since their first encounters. • The level of conflict in the U.S.