Volume 2: 2009-2010 ISSN: 2041-6776 9 { The Life of an Icelandic Outlaw: A Comparative Analysis of Gislá saga and Grettis saga Bernard Hirsch The title of this essay contains something that is close to an oxymoron. An outlaw is someone who is basically doomed to die, so every day of his life can be interpreted as protraction of death. The life of an outlaw is, however, also entirely unnatural for other reasons. It is a commonplace since Aristotle to refer to a human being as a on o ó œ yet the term ”outlaw‘ comes very close in meaning to a on o ó .1 There are two interrelated results of the sentence of outlawry on the individual that justify such an interpretation: (i) the prohibition of the continuation of social relations and (ii) the deterioration of the individual psyche due to exclusion from society. It is these aspects of outlawry that I will consider most closely in my interpretation of two literary representations of an outlaw. Additional topics that will be addressed because they are vital for the understanding of these texts and their treatment of outlawry are the reason why the respective hero becomes outlawed, his struggle for survival, the episodic nature of his adventures, the influence of the supernatural, and his poetry. This essay discusses two texts which are commonly cited as the main ”outlaw sagas‘: 2 Gísla saga Súrssonar and Grettis saga Êsmundarsonar .3 I will compare them with the focus on the above outlined perspective, which is particularly fruitful as the two sagas differ in several respects, offering two complementary angles from which the life of an outlaw can be seen and interpreted. To provide the required framework for reading the sagas, I will start with a brief discussion of the legal, the historical, and the literary situation of an Icelandic outlaw in the tenth century. The early Icelandic jurisdiction in the so-called Commonwealth period (c. 930-1260) knew very few methods for the punishment of convicts. There were of course no prisons, but there was no executive power either that could, for instance, inflict the death penalty. The main two options of punishment were fines and outlawry. The latter sentence consisted in the exclusion of the convict from society and from the protection offered by its laws; furthermore, people within the law were forbidden to help, feed, or harbour outlaws. The penalty existed in two versions: ”lesser outlawry‘, which had a limited duration of three years, and ”full outlawry‘, which did not terminate unless the outlaw managed to kill three other outlaws. 4 As I said above, full outlawry effectively meant either banishment from Iceland or death. Outlaws were not merely constantly struggling for survival œ a major factor inciting them to further crimes such as thieving œ but were also often hunted down by a revenging party, who could kill them with impunity. The real situation of outlaws was of course a bit different. The law could not effectively prevent the family and kin of an outlaw from supporting him, offering him food, 1 cf. Hastrup 292 2 e.g. cf. Ìlason (1998): 75; I include the year of publication in the short citation only when my bibliography contains more than one work by the same author. 3 Henceforth abbreviated as Gísla and Grettis ; all references are to chapter rather than page numbers. 4 There was no restriction to the duration of 20 years as stated in Grettis , cf. chapter 77. INNERVATE Leading Undergraduate Work in English Studies, Volume 2 (2009-2010), pp. 193-199. 194 The Life of an Icelandic Outlaw: A Comparative Analysis of Gislá saga and Grettis saga shelter, and œ most importantly œ human company. However, it was not only an outlaw‘s family and friends who protected him but very often also local chieftains (gó¦ar) or rich farmers, who, in return, used him to carry out farmwork or œ more sinisterly œ to kill off their enemies. It can thus be seen that the legal institution of outlawry, arising more out of necessity than judicial consideration, was actually neither observed to the point nor did it protect society from dangerous criminals œ quite to the contrary, no-one had better reasons to commit crimes than an outlaw. Such a precarious sui generis form of human life of course attracted the attention of the saga writers, not least because it tied in with heroic and tragic motifs that lent themselves to literary exploitation. In contrast with the bulk of sagas that deal with the fate of a whole family (perhaps over several generations) often involving feuds, outlaw sagas centre on one main hero. In both Grettis and Gísla , this character is rendered very complex and has both positive and negative character traits. He is not entirely likeable, but the peculiar circumstances of his life encourage the reader to sympathise with him. 5 It goes without saying that the bulk of the saga narrates the life of the hero while he is outlawed, but the careful build-up of the action until that point and a resolution in the end after the catastrophe are integral parts of the saga as well. The inevitability of the hero‘s death adds a fatalistic touch to the whole story, which influences the psyche of the protagonist considerably and will be discussed at length with regard to the two texts. Finally, the required existence of an avenging party that tries to kill the hero ensures the dramatic build-up of the action between the protagonist and his antagonist(s). Thus the death of the hero becomes a necessity also from the point of view of the internal logic of the narrative structure. Gísla saga has unanimously been praised for its elegant structure, which is reflected in the equally symmetrical familial relations of the main characters resulting in what I would call a perfect and necessarily disastrous dilemma. 6 I want to emphasise in particular the parallel obligation that Gísli has towards the victim Vésteinn and the alleged murderer Ýorgrímr: 7 both are brothers-in-law to him, and despite his duty towards Vésteinn as his blood-brother, the decision he has to make between them is essentially also one between his sister Ýórdís and his wife Au¦r. Yet both these women will find themselves in exactly the same predicament in the course of the saga: Ýórdís will have to decide between her brother and her (dead) husband and Au¦r between her husband and the sons of her brother. In one of his verses, 8 Gísli addresses this problem by referring to Gu¦rún of heroic legend, who even killed her children to avenge her brothers. 9 All three characters in Gísla , however, choose their spouses. 10 Yet Gísli not only reproaches his sister but also realises his own inability to escape from evil fate as early as Ýorgrímr‘s refusal to join the blood-brotherhood. 11 Gísli‘s doom is from the very beginning marked as both fatal and fatalistic. In Grettis , the situation is a bit different. Grettir is not merely the victim of ill chance and an inescapable conflict of opposing obligations. 12 The reader can foresee his becoming an outlaw from very early on because several of his character traits are simply not fit for society: even as a child, he is said to be ”mjög ódæll [...], fátala¦ur og óýð¦ur‘ ( Grettis chapter 14); consequently, his killings for negligible reasons start very early (cf. chapter 16), he is cruel to animals (cf. chapter 14), and he is very revengeful. Grettir is more like the protagonist of a tale from the heroic age; he has no place in post-Christianised society. The sentence of 5 Note that the sagas therefore implicitly question the law by inviting a positive attitude towards a convict. 6 cf. Meulengracht Sørensen 235-237, 242-245 7 For a discussion of the problematic status of Ýorgrímr as a murderer who basically has no personal motive, cf. Kroesen 386-389. 8 cf. Gísla chapter 19 9 cf. Ìlason (1999): 167 10 However, cf. Ýórdís‘ divorce from her second husband Börkr as an exception from this rule. 11 cf. Gísla chapter 6 12 cf. Ìlason (1998): 186-190 INNERVATE Leading Undergraduate Work in English Studies, Volume 2 (2009-2010), pp. 193-199. Bernard Hirsch 195 outlawry seems not really disastrous for him because it rather provides a possibility for this character, who is so awkwardly out of place in the society he lives in, to become a tragic hero of great renown. It is, then, an ironic touch that Grettir is denied such a fateful situation as the one that Gísli finds himself in: his one deed that actually leads to his becoming an outlaw is unintentional and rather the by-product of a great feat of strength that belongs to a different thread of the story. 13 He does not even know the people whom he accidentally burns to death. Both saga heroes survive exceptionally long as outlaws. About Grettir the saga even tells us that ”hann hefir ver¦i¦ lengst í sekt einnhver manna‘ ( Grettis chapter 93). Gísli spends thirteen years as an outlaw, of which only the last seven years are narrated in detail. From this time onwards he starts having prophesying dreams. This period is characterised by an alternation of ”action sequences‘, in which he travels around Iceland trying to escape Eyjólfr‘s men, and his stays with Au¦r, where he is comparatively safe but haunted by his dreams. The description of Grettir‘s life as an outlaw is of course much longer œ simply because the saga itself is much longer œ but not dissimilar in its structure.