Aquatic Noise Pollution from Oil Tankers and Escort Vessels in Prince William Sound, Its Effects and Impacts on the Marine Environment of the Sound: Literature Search from 1980 to Present Report on Project 854.07.1 PREPARED FOR PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND REGIONAL CITIZENS’ ADVISORY COUNCIL 3709 Spenard Road, Suite 100 Anchorage, AK 99503 PREPARED BY Ann E. Bowles, Ph.D. Stefanie K. Graves HUBBS-SEAWORLD RESEARCH INSTITUTE 2595 Ingraham Street San Diego, CA 92109 WITH CONTRIBUTIONS BY Tina M. Yack 1519 Baywood Street Davis, CA 95616 17 October 2007 Participants and Support The following report was prepared by Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute (HSWRI) for the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council (PWSRCAC) under Project 854.07.1. The deliverables for the project include this report and an annotated bibliographic database. The report was prepared by Dr. Ann E. Bowles, Senior Research Biologist, and Ms. Stefanie K. Graves, Senior Research Assistant at HSWRI, using literature and information originally prepared by Ms. Tina Yack. Contract management was provided by Ms. Donna Schantz, PWSRCAC, and Mr. Christopher Jones, Maritime Operations Project Manager, under the supervision of the PWSRCAC Board. ii DRAFT REPORT - DO NOT CITE. Bowles et al. 2007. Aquatic Noise Pollution from Oil Tankers and Escort Vessels in Prince William Sound, Its Effects and Impacts on the Marine Environment of the Sound - Literature Search from 1980 to Present. Report by Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute for Prince William Sound Regional Citizen’s Advisory Council on Project 854.07.1 Contact: [email protected]. Table of Contents 1.0 Executive Summary ................................................................................1-1 2.0 Introduction.............................................................................................2-1 2.1 Goals of Literature Review.................................................................................... 2-1 2.2 Prince William Sound ............................................................................................ 2-1 2.3 Activities in Prince William Sound that Produce Noise .......................................2-3 2.3.1 TAPS Transport ...................................................................................................2-3 2.3.2 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill..........................................................................................2-5 2.3.3 Fishing Industry...................................................................................................2-6 2.3.4 Tourism, Transportation, and Other Vessel Traffic............................................... 2-7 2.3.5 Alaska Subsistence Uses.......................................................................................2-8 2.4 Threatened and Endangered Species in Alaska.................................................... 2-9 2.5 Fish Species of Concern ....................................................................................... 2-11 2.6 Fish Habitat Use................................................................................................... 2-11 3.0 Anthropogenic Ocean Noise ...................................................................3-1 3.1 Acoustics in the Marine Environment: Relevant Concepts..................................3-1 3.2 Noise Measurements .............................................................................................. 3-1 3.2.1 Estimation of Source and Received Level............................................................. 3-8 3.2.2 Noise in the Marine Environment....................................................................... 3-11 3.3 Acoustic Characteristics of Sources in Prince William Sound........................... 3-13 3.3.1 Heavy Shipping: Tankers and Bulk Carriers....................................................... 3-13 3.3.2 Other Vessel Traffic ........................................................................................... 3-15 3.3.3 Navigation and Fish-finding Sonar..................................................................... 3-16 4.0 Impact on Fish Species............................................................................4-1 4.1 Anthropogenic Noise Effects on Fish.....................................................................4-1 4.1.1 Distribution..........................................................................................................4-1 4.1.2 Hearing Damage..................................................................................................4-2 4.1.3 Noise Masking......................................................................................................4-5 4.1.4 Behavioral Responses ..........................................................................................4-5 4.1.5 Survivorship of Eggs and Fry............................................................................... 4-7 4.1.6 Physiological Effects of Noise.............................................................................. 4-7 5.0 Impact on Marine Mammals..................................................................5-1 5.1 Regulations and Guidelines Regarding Exposure of Marine Mammals.............. 5-1 5.2 Abundance, Distribution, and Habitat Use........................................................... 5-2 5.2.1 Cetaceans.............................................................................................................5-2 5.2.2 Pinnipeds.............................................................................................................5-3 5.2.3 Otters................................................................................................................... 5-4 5.3 Hearing Damage.....................................................................................................5-4 iii DRAFT REPORT - DO NOT CITE. Bowles et al. 2007. Aquatic Noise Pollution from Oil Tankers and Escort Vessels in Prince William Sound, Its Effects and Impacts on the Marine Environment of the Sound - Literature Search from 1980 to Present. Report by Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute for Prince William Sound Regional Citizen’s Advisory Council on Project 854.07.1 Contact: [email protected]. 5.3.1 Cetaceans.............................................................................................................5-4 5.3.2 Pinnipeds.............................................................................................................5-7 5.4 Noise masking.........................................................................................................5-7 5.4.1 Cetaceans.............................................................................................................5-8 5.4.2 Pinnipeds.............................................................................................................5-9 5.5 Behavioral Responses............................................................................................. 5-9 5.5.1 Cetaceans........................................................................................................... 5-11 5.5.2 Pinnipeds........................................................................................................... 5-16 5.5.3 Sea Otters .......................................................................................................... 5-17 5.6 Non-Auditory Physiological Effects .................................................................... 5-17 5.6.1 Energetic effects................................................................................................. 5-17 5.6.2 Physiological stress............................................................................................ 5-18 5.6.3 Injury Produced by High-intensity, Narrowband Sounds .................................... 5-20 5.6.4 Ship Strikes ........................................................................................................ 5-22 6.0 Conclusions..............................................................................................6-1 7.0 Recommendations ...................................................................................7-1 8.0 Literature Cited ......................................................................................8-1 Appendix A Hearing and Vocalizations of Marine Mammals and Fish ... A-1 A-1 Introduction to Hearing ....................................................................................... A-1 A-2 Fish Hearing ......................................................................................................... A-3 A-3 Marine Mammal Hearing .................................................................................... A-6 A-3.1 Mysticete hearing..................................................................................................A-6 A-3.2 Small cetacean hearing.........................................................................................A-7 A-3.3 Pinniped and sea otter hearing .............................................................................A-8 A-4 Marine Mammal Vocalizations............................................................................ A-8 A-4.1 Mysticete whales...................................................................................................A-8 A-4.2 Odontocete Cetaceans.........................................................................................A-10 A-4.3 Pinnipeds............................................................................................................A-11