TRANSGRESSIVE CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY IN POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICAN ART VOLUME I Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY at RHODES UNIVERSITY by KAREN VON VEH September 2011 DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It is being submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Rhodes University, Grahamstown. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any other University. ____________________________________ Karen Elaine von Veh On _______day of_______________________2011. ii ABSTRACT In this study I propose that transgressive interpretations of Christian iconography provide a valuable strategy for contemporary artists to engage with perceived social inequalities in post- apartheid South Africa. Working in light of Michel Foucault’s idea of an “ontology of the present”, I investigate the ways in which religious iconography has been implicated in the regulation of society. Parodic reworking of Christian imagery in the selected examples is investigated as a strategy to expose these controls and offer a critique of mechanisms which produce normative ‘truths’. I also consider how such imagery has been received and the factors accounting for that reception. The study is contextualized by a brief, literary based, historical overview of Christian religious imagery to explain the strength of feeling evinced by religious images. This includes a review of the conflation of religion and state control of the masses, an analysis of the sovereign controls and disciplinary powers that they wield, and an explication of their illustration in religious iconography. I also identify reasons why such imagery may have seemed compelling to artists working in a post-apartheid context. By locating recent works in terms of those made elsewhere or South African examples prior to the period that is my focus, the works discussed are explored in terms of broader orientations in post-apartheid South African art. Artworks that respond to specific Christian iconography are discussed, including Adam and Eve, The Virgin Mary, Christ, and various saints and sinners. The selected artists whose works form the focus of this study are Diane Victor, Christine Dixie, Majak Bredell, Tracey Rose, Wim Botha, Conrad Botes, Johannes Phokela and Lawrence Lemaoana. Through transgressive depictions of Christian icons these artists address current inequalities in society. The content of their works analysed here includes (among others): the construction of both female and male identities; sexual roles, social roles, and racial identity; the social expectations of contemporary motherhood; repressive role models; Afrikaner heritage; political and social change and its effects; colonial power; sacrifice; murder, rape, and violence in South Africa; abuses of power by role models and politicians; rugby; heroism; and patricide. iii Christian iconography is a useful communicative tool because it has permeated many cultures over centuries, and the meanings it carries are thus accessible to large numbers of people. Religious imagery is often held sacred or is regarded with a degree of reverence, thus ensuring an emotive response when iconoclasm or transgression of any sort is identified. This study argues that by parodying sacred imagery these artists are able to disturb complacent viewing and encourage viewers to engage critically with some of its underlying implications. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME I Page: DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………….... ii ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………..... iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .............................……………………………………....... vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.................................................................................................. xx INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….. 1 Foucault’s theories on power and regulation…………………………………………. 6 The importance of parody…………………………………………………………….. 11 Structure of the thesis ………………………..………………………………………. 14 CHAPTER ONE: Mechanisms of power and subversion in Christian Imagery…...... 17 Transgressive Christian imagery in Britain and America…………………………..... 18 A historical contextualisation of religious iconography……………………………... 30 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….... 37 CHAPTER TWO: The integration of Christianity and Politics in selected images from the apartheid era....................................................................................................... 39 Apartheid era artists and the black saviour………………………………………….... 42 Diane Victor’s response to politics and religion in the 1980s………………………... 49 Christine Dixie’s art made during the transitional era of South African politics…….. 57 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..... 63 CHAPTER THREE: Adam and Eve………………………………………………….... 65 A Christian doctrinal context of original sin…………………………………………. 65 A feminist agenda for Adam and Eve............................................................................ 71 Identity crisis………………………………………………………………………..... 77 Homosexuality………………………………………………………………………... 79 v Colonialism and exploitation…………………………………………………………. 82 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..... 85 CHAPTER FOUR: Mary, Virgin and Madonna……………………………………..... 87 Diane Victor: The Eight Marys……………………………………………………….. 91 Majak Bredell’s Black Madonnas……………………………………………………. 102 Tracy Rose and la Messie…………………………………………………………….. 110 Christine Dixie’s evocations of motherhood…………………………………………. 115 The Madonna according to Wim Botha and Conrad Botes…………………………... 127 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………. 133 CHAPTER FIVE: Images of Jesus Christ, Son of God……………………………….. 134 Diane Victor’s Christ - made man……………………………………………………. 135 Wim Botha’s deconstruction of doctrine……………………………………………... 139 Conrad Botes and the search for Afrikaner identity………………………………….. 151 Lawrence Lemaoana and black masculinity in the new South Africa………………... 161 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………. 168 CHAPTER SIX: Saints, Sinners, Patriarchs and Politicians………………………..... 170 Interpretations of sacrifice in prefigurations of Christ……………………………….. 171 Murder and Mayhem…………………………………………………………………. 180 Injustice and Infamy………………………………………………………………….. 186 Personal interpretations: Female gods, saints and martyrs………………………….... 191 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………. 196 CONCLUSION.............................……………………………………………………….. 198 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………... 202 VOLUME II Page: ILLUSTRATIONS………………………………………………………………………. 1 ILLUSTRATIONS SOURCE LIST………………………………………….................. 125 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II INTRODUCTION: Page: Fig.0.1: Max Ernst. The Virgin Mary Spanking the Christ Child before Three Witnesses: 1 Andre Breton, Paul Eluard, and the Painter. 1926. Oil on canvas, 196 x 130cm. Museum Ludwig, Cologne, Germany. Fig.0.2: Justinian, Bishop Maximanus, and attendants. c.547. Mosaic on the north wall of 2 the apse, San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. Fig.0.3: Christ handing the crown to Justinian, seated between two angels, Saint Vitalis 2 and Bishop Ecclesius. c.547. Mosaic in the apse of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. CHAPTER ONE: Fig.1.1: Andres Serrano. Piss Christ. 1987. Cibachrome photograph mounted on 3 plexiglass, 152 x 101 cm. Fig.1.2: Chris Ofili. TheHoly Virgin Mary. 1996. Acrylic, oil, resin, paper collage, glitter, 3 map pins and elephant dung on canvas, 244 x 183 cm. Fig.1.3: Angus Fairhurst. Pietà. 1996. C-print in frame, 261.6 x 195.6 cm. Sadie Coles 4 HQ, London. Fig.1.4: Sarah Lucas. Christ You Know it Ain’t Easy (detail). 2003. Marlboro light 4 cigarettes and paint, dimensions variable. Sadie Coles HQ, London. Fig.1.5: Conrad Botes. Page from: Dukuza drawing book no.4. 2004. 5 Fig.1.6: Madonna and Child (Whakapakoko). 1845-90. Wood, Paua shell, 83 x 15 cm. 5 Auckland Museum. CHAPTER TWO: Fig.2.1: Azaria Mbatha. David and Goliath. 1963. Linocut on paper, 25 x 30 cm. 6 Fig.2.2: Azaria Mbatha. Herod and the Wise Men. 1965. Linocut on paper, 29.2 x 6 23.1 cm. Collection Mr P. C. G. McKenzie, Pietermaritzburg. Fig.2.3: Charles Nkosi. Pain on the Cross I. 1976. Linocut, 337 x 223 cm. 7 Fig.2.4: Charles Nkosi. Pain on the Cross IV. 1976. Linocut, 337 x 223 cm. 7 vii Fig.2.5: Charles Nkosi. Crucifixion II, Pain of the Cross II. 1976. Linocut, 34 x 23 cm. 8 Fig.2.6: Charles Nkosi. Crucifixion III, Submission to Death. 1976. Linocut, 33 x 23 cm. 8 Fig.2.7: Paul Stopforth. Elegy. 1981. Mixed media on paper on wood panel, 152.4 x 8 243.84 cm. MTN Collection. Fig.2.8: Hans Holbein. The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb. 1521. Oil on wood, 9 30.5 x 200 cm. Offentliche Kunstsammlung, Basel, Switzerland. Fig.2.9: Andrea Mantegna. Foreshortened Christ. c.1500. Tempera on canvas, 68 x 9 81 cm. Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan. Fig.2.10: Paul Stopforth. Biko Series: Heels (negative). 1980. Graphite and wax on paper, 10 76 x 56 cm. Collection of the University of the Witwatersrand. Fig.2.11: Samkelo Bunu. Daniel in the Lion’s Den. 1995. Etching, 29 x 29.5 cm. MTN 10 Collection. Fig.2.12: Paul Stopforth. The Island #3: Hinge. 2003. Mixed media on paper, 58.5 x 56 11 cm. Private collection. Fig.2.13: Paul Stopforth. The Island #1: Trash Cans. 2003. Mixed media on paper, 58.5 x 11 56 cm. Collection of the artist. Fig.2.14: Paul Stopforth. The Island #4: Blankets. 2003. Mixed media on paper, 58.5 x 12 58 cm. Collection of the artist. Fig.2.15: Diane Victor. The Problem with being a God These Days. 1987. Charcoal and 13 pastel on paper, 150 x 100 cm. ABSA Collection. Fig.2.16: Diane Victor. Adoration of