False Memories of UFO Encounters: An fMRI Investigation Angela Lambrinos A Thesis In the Department of Psychology Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada October 2011 © Angela Lambrinos, 2011 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Angela Lambrinos Entitled: False Memories of UFO Encounters: An fMRI Investigation and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Psychology) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final examining committee: _______________________________________ Chair Dr. D. Salée _______________________________________ External Examiner Dr. P. Rainville _______________________________________ External to Program Dr. G. Carr _______________________________________ Examiner Dr. Norman Segalowitz _______________________________________ Examiner Dr. A. Chapman _______________________________________ Thesis Supervisor Dr. J-R Laurence Approved by ___________________________________________ Dr. A. Chapman, Graduate Program Director October 14, 2011 ___________________________________________ Dr. B. Lewis, Dean of Faculty of Arts and Science ABSTRACT False Memories of UFO Encounters: An fMRI Investigation Angela Lambrinos, Ph.D. Concordia University, 2011 The idea of „false memories‟ for traumatic events has powered numerous controversies. For this reason, the present study was designed as an attempt to resolve this debate with the use of neuroscience by alleviating two major limitations that have hindered progress in the field: namely, a more specific and restricted definition of what constitutes a false memory; and alleviating concerns surrounding the lack of ecological validity of simulated cases by testing individuals claiming to have been abducted by space aliens. Our objective was to determine whether fMRI could distinguish between a false and a real memory and to identify the neural processes associated with these memories. Personality traits and/or cognitive abilities related to incidences of false memory were investigated, as well as, brain activation during 4 memory recall conditions: 1) self false memory; 2) self real memory; 3) other false memory; and 4) other real memory. A sample of 12 men and women who identified themselves as UFO abductees were used in the fMRI part of this experiment with their UFO abduction memory as the „self false memory‟ condition. Results revealed higher scores on all cognitive and personality measures for the UFO group. We found evidence that the processing of real and false memories is correlated with different patterns of brain activity. In addition, main effects of self-referential processing and memory type (unusual content versus usual) were also tested. The results indicated that self-referential responding was mainly associated to iii prefrontal and limbic activations whereas the successful retrieval of unusual content was associated to multiple regions of the brain including but not limited to bilateral prefrontal and occipital activations, and right anterior cingulate. Significant interactions were also observed in four right hemispheric regions: the lateral globus pallidus; the superior frontal gyrus; the parietal supramarginal gyrus; and the limbic lobe with increased activation specifically linked to the condition “self false memory”. Our findings extended the line of false memory research to unusual false memories and revealed additional activations associated specifically to this type of memory. iv Acknowledgments I would first like to thank my thesis supervisor, Dr. Jean-Roch Laurence, for his constant support and patience. This has been a long road but we made it. I can honestly say that your compassion and patience for my overwhelming life has been what helped push me to finally complete this exciting yet arduous task. Thank you for your witty nature, positive thinking, your guidance, and most of all, your friendship. I also want to thank Francois Blondin for his hard work during the data collection process. You are a real trooper. Your enormous amount of dedication to this study is undeniable and unforgettable and I will always be grateful to you. I am especially thankful to have met Robert Cassidy. Robert, you are my savior. You not only helped in preparing me and making me feel confident with my research, but your dedication and your wisdom is what allowed me to have peaceful nights of sleep. YOU ROCK!!!! I am also grateful to the financial support I have received from my parents through the years. They have been unbelievably patient and I thank them for making sure I always had the opportunities that I wanted. Your undeniable and constant love and support is well recognized and greatly appreciated. Last, but certainly not least, I want to thank my husband, Billy. I honestly do not think I would have made it to the end without you. You are my biggest cheerleader and held the vision for me when at times I felt it wasn‟t possible. For that, I dedicate this dissertation to you. v Table of Contents Lists of Figures...…………………………………………………………………………ix Lists of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..x Introduction………………….…………………………………………………………….1 What is a False Memory?..............................................................................2 The recovered memory Debate…………………….…………...………….5 Memory Research…...………………………………………….……….....6 Infantile Amnesia...........………………………………………….….....….9 Trauma Related Studies.………………………………….........................10 Suggestive Techniques..…………………………………………..….......12 Retrospective and Prospective Studies……...……………………...….....16 Abduction by Aliens and Personality correlates.………….......................19 Neuroscience Perspective..…………………………………….…………24 Current Study.....……………………………………………………….....33 Methods…………………………………………………………………………..38 Subjects…………………………………………………………………..38 Materials and Tasks……………………………………….…………......39 Data Acquisition..……………………………………………………......45 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………….46 Results….…………………………………………………………..…………….48 Questionnaire Analysis.……………………………………….………....48 Stroop Task…..………………………………………………….……….51 fMRI Results…………………………………………………………….52 vi Discussion.......……….………………………………………………………….67 Alien Abduction Correlates...…………………………………………...67 Reaction Time Data/Behavioral Data.……..……………………………70 fMRI Discussion...……………………………………………………....71 Summary………...……………………………………………………....88 References…………………………………………………………………….....92 Appendix A Advertisement...………………………………………………….116 Appendix B Psychosis Screener….…………………………………………….117 Appendix C Screening…………………………………………………………119 Appendix D MRI questionnaire……..…………………………………………127 Appendix E MNI Approval…....……………………………………………….128 Appendix F Consent Form……………………………………………………..130 Appendix G Beck Depression Inventory…………………………………….....131 Appendix H SPQ-A………………………………………………………….....133 Appendix I MIS.………………………………………………………………..137 Appendix J MSTQ……………………………………………………………...139 Appendix K Alien Encounter Interview……….…………………………….....144 Appendix L Alien Encounter script..……………………………………….......145 Appendix M ET memory questions………………………………………….....147 Appendix N Emotional Experience Interview...………………………………..148 Appendix O Emotional Experience script…….………………………………..149 Appendix P Emotional memory questions……………………………………..150 Appendix Q OFM & ORM scripts…..………………………………………...151 vii Appendix R OFM & ORM questions…………………………………………154 Appendix S Purpose of Study ET group………………………………………156 Appendix T Telephone Screener……………………………………………...157 Appendix U Consent Form MNI……………………………………………...158 Appendix V Reimbursement Form…………………………………………....161 Appendix W Purpose of Study control group………………………………...162 viii List of Figures Figure 1…………………………………………………………………………………54 Figure 2…………………………………………………………………………………61 Figure 3…………………………………………………………………………………63 Figure 4…………………………………………………………………………………66 ix List of Tables Table 1…………………………………………………………………………………...50 Table 2…………………………………………………………………………………...51 Table 3…………………………………………………………………………………...53 Table 4…………………………………………………………………………………...57 Table 5…………………………………………………………………………………...58 Table 6…………………………………………………………………………………...59 Table 7…………………………………………………………………………………...62 Table 8…………………………………………………………………………………...64 x Introduction In the last four decades, the idea of „false memories‟ for traumatic events has fueled numerous controversies. Some of these debates have been examined in the laboratories whereas others have been carried out in private practices and most importantly in the legal arena. This contentious topic has made many famous for their in depth thinking and high quality research and has left others feeling depressed and awaiting trial for an act they claim was never committed. Thus far, has research accomplished its goals and put our minds to rest when we speak of false memories? The answer is yes and no. More work is clearly needed if researchers and clinicians are still divided in relation to whether or not narratives of traumatic events are like any other types of memories, malleable. Why is the false memory debate such a dividing topic? Some researchers may support the thought that clinicians are uninformed by choice and are more accepting of theories that have no scientific bases (Dawes, 1994). Clinicians on the other hand, may propose that researchers are too stringent in their experimental designs and