ISIHLONIPHO AMONG AMAXHOSA by Knobel Sakhiwo Bongela §JHLONFHOAMONGAMAXHOSA by Knobel Sakhiwo Bongela Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject AFRICAN LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Promoter: Prof. R Finlayson Joint Promoter: Prof N Saule JUNE 2001 DECLARATION I declare that ISIHLONIPHO Al\'IONG Al\'IAXHOSA is my own work and all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am enormously grateful to Professor Rosalie Finlayson, my promoter, for her wise guidance, meticulous criticism and consistent encouragement. I would also like to thank Professor Ncedile Saule, the joint promoter, for his unflagging encouragement and invaluable assistance. In the midst of scarcity of written material on isihlonipho among amaXhosa, I feel obliged to mention unequivocally that my success in the gathering and compilation of the information for this research study, is largely attributed to the enormous contribution made by the following groups of people: the members of my church, The Uniting Presbyterian Church of Southern Africa based in East London; members of the general public as well as the experts on African culture mostly found in the rural areas of both the Transkei, Ciskei and the Border regions. I am eternally grateful to my wife Xoli for her encouragement and assistance as well as the support given by our children while I was battling with the work and in the process having had to neglect them. 111 DEDICATION To my late father, Abraham, and my mother, EmmahZwanana, now aged 91, for their wonderful contribution in making me what I am today. Thanks to you Mkhwane and also to you Rhadebe. Ukwanda hvaliwa ngumthakathi. IV PREFACE This study has been designed to investigate isihlonipho, one of the major parts of the indigenous culture of amaXhosa. Although this national unit is basically spread throughout greater South Africa, yet the province of the Eastern Cape has been identified as their indigenous area of domicile. The Eastern Cape is predominantly Xhosa-speaking and encompasses the Transkei, Ciskei and the Border regions where hlonipha culture has been practised for centuries between Mpondos, Gcalekas, Rharhabes, Thembus, Mfengus, Phuthis, Ntlangwinis, Qwathis, Xesibes, Hlubis, Bhacas, Mpondomises and Bomvanas. All these are sub-units ofthe composite Xhosa population that speak the above mentioned dialects. Sotho speakers are found in the districts of Matatiele and Mt Fletcher and are completely bilingual and practise hlonipha culture because of the strong influence of isiXhosa and Xhosa culture. Most parts of the Western Cape which are dominated by the Xhosa speaking people, also practise hlonipha. To gather all the information needed for this study, various people and families were interviewed and these provided information related, inter alia, to cultural practices among family units, religion, attire, distinguished people, venerated places and shrines, circumcision and marriages. Besides general interviews, various sources of information such as libraries, museums, resource centre universities were consulted The consequences of abandoning hlonipha culture in today' s generation are reflected in the concluding chapter where recommendations are also made with a view to recording and arresting this vanishing culture which has been the backbone of the wider Xhosa indigenous culture in South Africa. The study reflects that the indigenous nature of the Xhosa culture has been corroded by the arrival of western civilisation and Christianity in South Africa, hence much ofwhat remains today is a diluted replica v ofthe original indigenous culture. The researcher, during his research activities on the topic under the spotlight carne to the realisation that very little has been written on the aspect of hlonipha among arnaXhosa hence he experienced difficulty in securing appropriate reference material He had to depend mostly on information given by general informants. VI ABSTRACT Isihloniplto among amaXhosa is a study based on the indigenous culture of amaXhosa, a vibrant nation forming a black section of the South African population. In order to capture those interesting aspects embraced within the theme of this study, the researcher has deemed it proper and appropriate to focus his attention largely on the cultural practices of these people citing various stages of their cultural development. Although some of the most important cultural activities such as religion, ancestor worship, totems and others have been highlighted together with the statuses of certain personalities, places and family units, nevertheless, the emphasis is on h!onipha language associated with cultural practices such as, inter alia, uhmluko (circumcision) and traditional marriage. It is also placed on the language of respect associated with the veneration of aspects such as the weather, animals, rivers, graves, inkundla and many others. Of grave concern to the researcher is the fact that arrival of western civilisation, the spread of Christianity and the miscegenation of Black and White races have been instrumental in eroding hlonipha practices and hlonipha language which has remained the pillar of the amaXhosa culture for centuries. In view of the historical and political changes which have significantly affected the validity of these cultural practices, this thesis is inclined to support the spirit of renaissance which seeks to recoup those aspects ofthe past which our posterity needs for its cultural existence. Vll Declaration Acknowledgements II Dedication Ill Preface I\ Abstract VI Table of Contents VII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Historical overview 1 1. 1.1 The Setting 1.2 The field of study 8 1.2.1 Code of ethics 8 1.2.2 The scope 9 1.2.2.1 The concept of h!onipha as a cultural feature in a family unit 10 1.2.2.2 Religion 11 1.2.2.3 People and places 11 1.2.2.4 Formsofattire 12 1.2.2.5 Symbolic hlonipha 12 1.2.2.6 Drinks and medicines 12 1.2.2.7 Transition in hlonipha 15 1.2.2.7.1 Socially 15 1.2.2.7.2 Economically 16 1.2.2. 7.3 Politically 17 1.2.2.8 Significance of uhva!uko, its h!onipha element and its subsequent violation 17 1.2.2.8.1 Yesterday 18 1.2.2.8.2 Today 18 1.2.2.8.3 Tomorrow 19 1.2.2.9 Significance of hlonipha in a marriage situation and that of amagqirha 20 1.2.2.9.1 Yesterday 20 V111 1.2.2.9.2 Today 20 1.2.2.9.3 Tomorrow 21 1.3 Mode of research 21 1.4 Conclusion 22 CHAPTER2 THE CONCEPT OF HLONIPHA AS A CULTURAL FEATURE IN A FAMILY T.JNIT 2.1 Definition 23 2.2 Its functional use with age as a criterion 25 2.2.1 The role of children 26 2.2.2 Men and hlonipha customary practices 30 2.2.2.1 Levels of division 30 2.2.2.2 Hlonipha ethics 32 2.2.3 Women and hlonipha customary practices 35 2.2.3.1 Levels of division 35 2.2.3.1.1 lintombi zamakhwenkH·e (Girls ofthe boy's age group) 35 2.2.3.1.2 Jintombi zamadoda abafana (Young men's age group) 36 2.2.3.1.3 Jbakala labatshakazi / oomakoti (The recently married group) 37 2.2.3.1.4 !bakala labajazana (Young women's stage) 37 2.2.3.1.5 Jbakala loomama (Level of old/ mature womanhood) 38 2.2.3.1.6 Jbakala lamaxhegwazana (The very old women stage) 38 2.2.4 General hlonipha observances by women 38 2.2.4.1 Bodies 38 2.2.4.2 Babies 39 2.2.4.3 Laundry 39 2.2.4.4 Milk and amasi taboo and ukutyi.swa kwamasi ritual 39 2.2.4.5 Eggs 41 lX 2.2.4.6 Stepping over a stick 41 2.2.4.7 Entrance to the krall 41 2.2.4.8 Marrow 42 2.2.4.9 Dishing up food 42 2.2.4.10 Ukucweza 43 2.2.4.11 Conclusion 43 2.3 Cultural usage of clan names for hlonipha purposes 43 2.3.1 The role of iziduko with regard to men 45 2.3.2 Their role with regard to women 46 2.3.2.1 Use of isiduko from a general perspective 47 2.4 Conclusion 48 CHAPTER3 RELIGION 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Supernatural beings 50 ..., ..., .)_.) The ancestors 51 3.3.1 Ukukhatshv,;a (A send off ritual) 53 3.3.2 Ukubuyi.s1va (A bringing back ritual) 53 3.3.3 Ukuhlanjwa komzi 54 3.3.4 Other activities 55 3.3.5 Appeasement 55 3.4 Totems 56 3.4.1 The snake totem: uMajola 57 3.4.2 The animal totem: Ikati yehlathi (The leopard) 58 3.4.3 Bees and ants totems 60 3.4.3.1 hnyosi (The bees) bl 3.4.3.2 Ubugqvvangu (Red ants) 63 X 3.4.4 Animal totem (The dog) 63 3.4.5 The crustacean totem: Unonkala (The crab) 65 3.4.6 The bird totem: Inqilo (Orange throated longclaw-Macronyx capencis collecti) 66 3.4.7 The leguaan totem ( Uxam) 68 3.4.8 Goats and oxen 69 3.5 Conclusion 70 CHAPTER4 PEOPLE AND PLACES 4.1 People 73 4.1 Heads of families (Abaninimzi) 73 4.1.2 Jmilondekhaya 74 4 .1. 3 The headmen, chiefs, paramount chiefs: other people of royal blood 7 6 4.2 Places 78 4.2.1 Graves 79 4.2.1.1 Graves of ancestors 80 4.2.1.2Graves of chiefs, paramount chiefs and other prominent personalities 80 4.2.2 Inkzmdla 82 4.2.3 Rivers 84 4.2.4 Sleeping and retirement places for heads of families 87 4.2.5 The deities 89 4.3 Conclusion 91 Xl CHAPTER 5 FORVTS OF ATTlRE 5.1 Introduction 92 5.2 The males from purely indigenous period 93 5.2.1 Amaqaba (Red blanket men) 93 5.2.1.1 Boys 94 5.2.1.2 Men 95 5.2.2 Amagoba-dyasi ((People ofthe semi-traditional period) 97 5.2.2.1 Mode of wearing to signify hlonipha: (Modern tradition) 98 5.2.2.2 Use ofbeads to signify hlonipha 98 5.3 Females from the purely indigenous societv 100 5.3.1 lintombi zabajana (Young men's age group) 101 5.3.2 Abatshakazi (The newly wedded) 102 5.3.3 Abajazi bamaqaba (Older traditional women) 103 5.3.4 Amagqobhoka (Semi-traditional females) 104 5.3.5 Abatshakazi 105 5.3.6 Abajazi