GREEN CHINA Chinese insights on environment and development Edited by James Keeley and Zheng Yisheng 中 本 绿 国 土 色 的 学 中 环 者 国 境 论 与 发 展 First published by International Institute for Environment and Development (UK) in 2011 Copyright © International Institute for Environment and Development All rights reserved ISBN: 978-1-84369-816-6 For further information please contact: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 80-86 Grays Inn road London WC1X 8NH United Kingdom [email protected] www.iied.org/pubs A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Citation: Keeley, J. and Yisheng, Z. (eds.) 2011. Green China: Chinese insights on environment and development. International Institute for Environment and Development. London. Design by: Joe Hetzel, [email protected] Photos by: ©Simon Lim, [email protected] Printed by: Park Communications on 100% recycled paper, using vegetable based inks 2 CONTRIBUTORS Cao Dong Senior Research Fellow, Chinese Academy for Environmental Planning, Ministry of Environmental Protection Chen Jie Graduate Student, China University of Political Science and Law Chen Shaojun Professor, Chinese Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Dalintai Senior Research Fellow, Churiya Research Centre for Rangeland Ecology, Inner Mongolia Fu Tao Editor-in-Chief, China Development Brief Gao Minxue Deputy Director, School of Statistics, Renmin University, Beijing Guo Xiaomin Senior Research Fellow, Ministry of Environmental Protection Han Nianyong Senior Research Fellow, Chinese National Committee for Man and the Biosphere Jiang Hongqiang Senior Research Fellow, Chinese Academy for Environmental Planning, Ministry of Environmental Protection Jiang Xuemei Doctoral student, Northeastern Forestry University Li Shengzhi Senior Research Fellow, Shan Shui Conservation Centre Liang Fan City University of New York, New York Lu Feng Department of Philosophy, Tsinghua University Lu Zhi Executive Director, Centre for Nature and Society, Peking University Ma Zhong Professor, Dean of School of Environment and Natural Resources, Renmin University Piao Zhengji Senior Engineer, Department of Zoology, Changbaishan Academy of Sciences, Jilin Province Shen Keting Associate professor, College of Economics, Zhejiang Gongshang University Shen Xiaohui Senior Engineer, State Forestry Administration Shen Xiaoli Centre of Conservation Biology, Peking University Wang Jin Professor, School of Law, Peking University Wang Jinnan Vice-President and Chief Engineer, Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning, Ministry of Environmental Protection Wang Mingyuan Professor, School of Law, Tsinghua University Wu Jian Associate Professor, School of Environment and Natural Resources, Renmin University, Beijing Xu Jintao Professor, College of Environmental Sciences, Peking University Xu Songling Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Environment and Development, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Yi Fujin Doctoral student, University of California, Davis Yu Fang Senior Research Fellow, Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning, Ministry of Environmental Protection Zhang Shiqiu Professor and Deputy Dean, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University Zhang Xiao Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Environment and Development, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Zhao Hongmei Associate Professor, China University of Political Science and Law Zheng Yisheng Senior Research Fellow, Deputy Director, Centre for Environment and Development, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences; and Professor, Institute of Quantitative and Technical Economics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. 3 CONTENTS Foreword p6 Camilla Toulmin Preface p8 Zheng Yisheng James Keeley Part One 1 Introduction Environmental China’s environment and development challenge p12 Issues Zheng Yisheng 2 Understanding Environmental Pollution in China p26 Guo Xiaomin 3 Forests in China: A problem of quality p46 Shen Xiaohui 4 The Ecological Impact of Institutions and Policies on the Mongolian-Manchurian Grassland Ecosystem: Past and present p60 Dalintai 5 Ecological Reconstruction in China: An overview and analysis of reforestation on former agricultural land p74 Xu Jintao 6 Water Resource Scarcity in China p84 Chen Shaojun 7 Some Thoughts on International Environmental Cooperation After Copenhagen p97 Xu Songling Part Two 8 A New Approach to Conservation in Western China p118 Case studies Shen Xiaoli, Li Shengzhi, Lu Zhi 9 Natural versus Human Disturbances of Old-Growth Forests p136 Shen Xiaohui, Piao Zhengji 10 To Save Biodiversity, Protect Cultural Diversity: A case study of the reindeer-herding Ewenki people p149 Han Nianyong 4 Part Three 11 Environmental Rule of Law in China: Institutions Why the system isn’t working p160 and policies Wang Jin, Wang Mingyuan 12 Local and Central Government Relations: Impulsive investments and sustainable development p172 Shen Keting 13 What Role Can Public Expenditure Play in Meeting China’s Environmental Protection Targets p184 Wu Jian, Ma Zhong 14 Green GDP Accounting Research: Past experience and future prospects p190 Wang Jinnan, Yu Fang, Jiang Hongqiang, Cao Dong 15 Green GDP in China: Disputes and progress p204 Gao Minxue Part Four 16 Ecological Values and Capitalism p218 Theoretical Lu Feng issues and 17 Environmental Resources and Natural Capital: methodology Inefficient allocation and polarized distribution p227 Zhang Shiqiu 18 Water Scarcity, Water Transfer and Water Trade in China p237 Zhang Xiao 19 Water Rights from a Legal Perspective p257 Zhao Hongmei, Chen Jie Part Five 20 Breaching Barriers: Civil society Chinese environmental NGOs come of age p272 Fu Tao 5 Foreword IIED is delighted to partner with the China Academy of Social Sciences and the Ford Foundation- China on the translation and publication of Green China: Chinese insights on environment and development (published in Chinese as the China Environment and Development Review). In a world in which China’s environmental footprint is often portrayed in alarmist terms, the chapters presented here show a more nuanced and diverse range of experiences and problems faced, and focus on how they are being tackled. This foreword is written in a week dominated by the aftermath of Japan’s huge earthquake, and the fall-out from the nuclear crisis, reactions to which include the Chinese government’s decision to halt their nuclear power plant building programme. Given the scale on which demand for energy in China has been growing, such a decision will have wide-ranging consequences for the rest of the world. The global interconnections between energy, climate change, and land and water use mean that everyone has an interest in seeing China succeed in getting continued growth, but at lower environmental cost. China’s economy has generated an unprecedented level of growth, bringing large increases in income, and falling poverty for hundreds of millions of people. For example, per capita incomes have risen almost tenfold from 1985 to 2006, and levels of poverty have fallen from two-thirds in 1981 to 10% today. This hugely impressive performance is seen by many low income countries as offering a model for rapid economic transformation that they could also follow, in preference to western models of development. But the chapters presented here show clearly that China’s model, while demonstrating remarkable performance has also brought high environmental costs within and across the country’s borders. Internally, China’s land and water has suffered from over-use of chemical fertiliser, heavy levels of air pollution, and extremely low levels of water quality with many lakes and rivers ranked as unfit to touch, let alone use for irrigation. Climate change impacts are of growing significance, especially in the north-west, where growing numbers of people face acute water shortages and depletion of aquifers. These environmental impacts are hitting both urban and rural areas, both poor and rich, through ill-health, rising levels of cancer, floods and falling productivity of water and soils. However, they are disproportionately affecting the poor, especially those in more marginal areas. China is also having an environmental impact at international and global levels, having become the largest emitter of CO2 and nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions from agriculture, as well as SO2, and the source of a range of transboundary water problems. China’s environmental footprint is also increasingly visible around the world, given its rapid growth in demand for resources from overseas, whether wood, oil and gas, metals or agricultural commodities, such as soya and oil palm. However, it should be remembered that a good measure of these impacts are due to China meeting consumer demand elsewhere in Europe and North America. China’s performance has excited both envy and alarm, because of the scale and speed of change. There has been a single-mindedness to the Chinese pursuit of economic growth, which has successfully re-positioned China on the global stage after two centuries of relative powerlessness. The leadership has recognised the importance of growth as essential to keep the nation together. China presents a puzzle for many outsiders, because it is assumed that central government can get things done. In practice, while there is a fair body of environmental law and regulation, implementation has been limited and central government has found itself less able to achieve its ends than many outsiders would believe. Civil society and media pressures while starting to establish