EN State of European Cities Report Inforegio Adding value to the European Urban Audit the European value to Adding Consult the Inforegio website for an overview of EU Regional Policy : – http ://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/ [email protected] Adding value State of European Cities Report of European State to the European Urban Audit Study contracted by the European Commission May 2007 The ‘State of European Cities Report’ has been prepared by ECOTEC Research and Consulting Ltd, in cooperation with NordRegio and Eurofutures, following a call for tenders. Contract N° 2005CE160AT012 signed in December 2005 and fi nalised in April 2007 It is based on the European Urban Audit, which is coordinated by Eurostat with National Statistical Offi ces. The content of this publication does not necessarily refl ect the opinions of the institutions of the European Union. It refl ects the views of the authors. Context of the study In June 1999, the Commission conducted a data collection of comparable indicators in European cities. This “Urban Audit Pilot Project” was designed to test the feasibility of the approach and to learn for the future from possible errors in the design. Around 450 variables were collected for the 58 largest cities. However London and Paris were omitted since they were considered too diffi cult. After the completion of the Urban Audit Pilot Project in 2001, the Commission decided that there was a clear need to continue and improve the collection of comparable information on urban areas. The results of the pilot project were evaluated thoroughly, involving statistical experts from city organisations and experts for a number of specifi c fi elds from Eurostat. This evaluation led to a more focussed list of variables and a signifi cant expansion of participating cities, covering over 250 cities in the EU27. The fi rst full-scale European Urban Audit took place in 2003 for the EU15 and in 2004 for the ten new Member States plus Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey. The current study is based on this data collection. A new round of Urban Audit data collection started in May 2006 and will be completed in September 2007. The collection of quantitative information on the quality of life in European cities will take place every three years. A great deal of additional information on the Urban Audit may be found on the Internet at: www.urbanaudit.org And http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu (after choosing the language, click “data” and then “urban audit”) Mailbox: [email protected] And [email protected] (statistical questions) Foreword Cities are crucial actors in the shaping of Europe’s economy and territory. Cities and urban areas are home to an overwhelming majority of jobs, businesses and higher education institutions in the Union. They have been and will continue to be the engines for regional, national and European economic growth. On the other hand, many cities are confronted with severe problems of social exclusion. Despite progress in areas such as waste and water management, trends in urban transport and urban sprawl require careful management in order to avoid exacerbating difficulties. The battle for sustainable development will be largely decided in cities. This report is the most comprehensive study on the evolution of European cities so far. It builds on a unique collection of urban statistics covering 258 cities in the 27 Member States gathered by the Commission services in the Urban Audit. It provides an in-depth analysis of demography, economy, social conditions, education, environment, transport and culture. It examines the development of urban areas at different geographical levels: core city, larger urban zone and neighbourhoods. And it investigates how the competences of city authorities and local governments vary across Europe. The report helps us to understand better the changes in contemporary Urban Europe. It will provide local, regional, national and European decision makers with a useful tool to shape their future actions. But it will also be of interest for researchers and, more generally, for all those who are interested in European cities and their future development. We will continue to deepen our analysis of the different challenges confronting European cities as well as opportunities that are available to them. Danuta Hübner State of European Cities Report Adding value to the European Urban Audit Contents Preamble Contents Figures Tables Executive Summary I 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Today’s Europe, its cities and their evolution 1 1.2 The aim of this report 3 1.3 About the Urban Audit 3 1.4 Key questions for this report 5 2.0 Growth and Stagnation of Europe’s Cities 7 2.1 Are Europe’s cities expanding or contracting? 7 2.2 What factors lie behind the expansion and contraction of Europe’s cities? 14 2.2.1 Natural population change and the role of ageing 14 2.2.2 The role of migration 18 2.3 Which cities in Europe are growing and which are stagnating? 23 2.3.1 Northern European cities: generally positive growth 23 2.3.2 Western Europe: a diverse pattern 24 2.3.3 Central and Eastern Europe: facing population loss 26 2.3.4 Southern Europe: growth pressures – but not everywhere 27 2.3.5 Conclusions 29 3.0 The Competitiveness of Cities 31 3.1 The Economic Performance of Cities 32 3.1.1 GDP and the importance of cities 32 3.1.2 Cities as employment centres: the urban paradox 35 3.1.3 Cities and the Lisbon Agenda – the Lisbon Benchmark 40 3.2 Economic performance of cities - some pieces of the puzzle 43 3.2.1 The national context 43 3.2.2 Economic specialisation 44 3.2.3 City size and agglomeration economies 46 3.2.4 Drivers of urban competitiveness 48 3.3 A Typology of Urban Competitiveness 51 3.3.1 Towards a typology 51 3.4 International Hubs 56 3.4.1 Knowledge hubs 56 3.4.2 Established capitals 58 3.4.3 Re-invented capitals 60 3.5 Specialised Poles 62 3.5.1 National service hubs 62 3.5.2 Transformation poles 64 3.5.3 Gateways 66 3.5.4 Modern industrial centres 68 3.5.5 Research centres 70 3.5.6 Visitor centres 73 3.6 Regional Poles 75 3.6.1 De-industrialised cities 75 3.6.2 Regional market centres 77 3.6.3 Regional public service centres 80 3.6.4 Satellite towns 82 3.7 Conclusions 84 4.0 Living in Cities 87 4.1 Unemployment as a key challenge for social cohesion 87 4.1.1 Patterns of unemployment 87 4.1.2 Unemployment differences within city regions 89 4.2 Housing 94 4.2.1 How much space do Europe’s citizens demand? 94 4.2.2 A house or an apartment? 97 4.2.3 Home ownership 98 4.3 Household size 100 4.3.1 One-person households 103 4.3.2 Сhildren and suburbanisation 107 4.4 Education 108 4.4.1 In which part of the urban area do highly educated people tend to live? 111 4.5 Are cities healthy places to live in? 114 4.5.1 Life expectancy – a not too rosy picture 114 4.5.2 Environmental challenges – air quality 116 4.6 Urban transport 117 4.7 Сonclusion – the main characteristics of urban life 119 5.0 Governing Cities 120 5.1 The role of city government – an ongoing debate 120 5.2 Towards an index of city power? 123 5.3 Does size matter? 127 5.4 Not all cities are equal 129 5.5 Money matters too 133 5.6 At the heart of the differences: local responsibility 137 5.7 Conclusions 143 5.8 References 145 Annexes Figures Figure S.1: Population growth in cities (larger urban zones) for different parts of Europe (1996-2001) III Figure S.2: City-types mapped VIII Figure S.3: City-types positioned X Figure S.4: Female and Male employment rates, national averages and in cores cites, 2001 XII Figure S.5: Unemployment rate at sub-city level – some examples XIII Figure 2.1: Population changes in Larger Urban Zones 8 Figure 2.2: Population change in UA core cities and surrounding NUTS 3 region 1996- 2000/1 10 Figure 2.3: Population change in Larger Urban Zones 1996-2001 11 Figure 2.4: Population change in core cities and LUZ 1996-2001 12 Figure 2.5: Population change in UA cities 1996-2001 by age group: 0-14 years; 15-64 years; 65+ years; total 15 Figure 2.6: Population change and age structure 17 Figure 2.7: Share of newcomers to UA cities 2001 19 Figure 2.8: Number and origin of newcomers to UA cities 2001 21 Figure 2.9: Share of non-EU citizens, national average and core cities, 2001 22 Figure 2.10: Population change in Nordic cities (1996-2001) 24 Figure 2.11: Population Change in Central and Northwest European cities (1996-2001) 24 Figure 2.12: Population change in Central & Eastern European cities (1996-2001) 26 Figure 2.13: Population change in Southern European cities (1996-2001) 28 Figure 3.1: Gross Domestic Product per inhabitant in purchasing power standards in UA cities 2001 33 Figure 3.2: Real GDP growth in UA cities 1996-2001 34 Figure 3.3: Employment rates in cores cites, 2001 36 Figure 3.4: Female and Male employment rates, national averages and in cores cites, 2001 37 Figure 3.5: In- and out-commuting in UA cities 2001 39 Figure 3.6: The Lisbon benchmark 42 Figure 3.7: The importance of national influences for fast-growing and declining cities 43 Figure 3.8: Employment by main branch in UA cities 2001 45 Figure 3.9: The competitiveness tree: drivers of urban competitiveness 48 Figure 3.10: Economic performance and drivers of competitiveness: the role of talent 50 Figure 3.11: Economic performance and drivers of competitiveness: entrepreneurship 50 Figure 3.12: Economic performance and drivers of competitiveness: the role of connectivity 50 Figure 3.13: City-types positioned 53 Figure 3.14: City-types positioned – by some driving factors of competitiveness 53 Figure 3.15: City-types mapped 55 Figure