2011 Volume 3 The Journal on Advanced Studies in Theoretical and Experimental Physics, including Related Themes from Mathematics PROGRESS IN PHYSICS SPECIAL ISSUE The Sun — Liquid or Gaseous? A Thermodynamic Analysis “All scientists shall have the right to present their scientific research results, in whole or in part, at relevant scientific conferences, and to publish the same in printed scientific journals, electronic archives, and any other media.” — Declaration of Academic Freedom, Article 8 ISSN 1555-5534 The Journal on Advanced Studies in Theoretical and Experimental Physics, including Related Themes from Mathematics PROGRESS IN PHYSICS A quarterly issue scientific journal, registered with the Library of Congress (DC, USA). This journal is peer reviewed and included in the abs- tracting and indexing coverage of: Mathematical Reviews and MathSciNet (AMS, USA), DOAJ of Lund University (Sweden), Zentralblatt MATH (Germany), Scientific Commons of the University of St. Gallen (Switzerland), Open-J-Gate (India), Referativnyi Zhurnal VINITI (Russia), etc. Electronic version of this journal: JULY 2011 VOLUME 3 http://www.ptep-online.com Editorial Board Dmitri Rabounski, Editor-in-Chief SPECIAL ISSUE [email protected] Florentin Smarandache, Assoc. Editor [email protected] The Sun — Gaseous or Liquid? Larissa Borissova, Assoc. Editor [email protected] A Thermodynamic Analysis Editorial Team Gunn Quznetsov [email protected] Andreas Ries CONTENTS [email protected] Chifu Ebenezer Ndikilar [email protected] Robitaille P.M. A Thermodynamic History of the Solar Constitution — I: The Journey Felix Scholkmann toaGaseousSun.............................................................3 [email protected] Secchi A. On the Theory of Solar Spots Proposed by Signor Kirchoff ..................26 Postal Address Secchi A. On the Structure of the Solar Photosphere. .30 Department of Mathematics and Science, Magnus G. A Note on the Constitution of the Sun . 33 University of New Mexico, 200 College Road, Gallup, NM 87301, USA Faye H. On the Physical Constitution of the Sun — Part I. .35 Robitaille P.M. A Thermodynamic History of the Solar Constitution — II: The Theory of a Gaseous Sun and Jeans’ Failed Liquid Alternative. .41 Copyright c Progress in Physics, 2011 All rights reserved. The authors of the ar- Robitaille P.M. Liquid Metallic Hydrogen: A Building Block for the Liquid Sun . 60 ticles do hereby grant Progress in Physics Robitaille P.M. On the Presence of a Distinct Solar Surface: A Reply to Herve´ Faye . 75 non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free li- Robitaille P.M. On Solar Granulations, Limb Darkening, and Sunspots: Brief Insights cense to publish and distribute the articles in accordance with the Budapest Open Initia- in Remembrance of Father Angelo Secchi . 79 tive: this means that electronic copying, dis- Robitaille P.M. On the Temperature of the Photosphere: Energy Partition in the Sun . 89 tribution and printing of both full-size ver- sion of the journal and the individual pa- Robitaille P.M. Stellar Opacity: The Achilles Heel of a Gaseous Sun . 93 pers published therein for non-commercial, Robitaille P.M. LessonsfromtheSun.............................................100 academic or individual use can be made by any user without permission or charge. The LETTERS authors of the articles published in Progress in Physics retain their rights to use this jour- Dmitri Rabounski Pierre-Marie Luc Robitaille . L1 nal as a whole or any part of it in any other publications and in any way they see fit. 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July, 2011 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 3 A Thermodynamic History of the Solar Constitution — I: The Journey to a Gaseous Sun Pierre-Marie Robitaille Department of Radiology, The Ohio State University, 395 W. 12th Ave, Suite 302, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA E-mail: [email protected] History has the power to expose the origin and evolution of scientific ideas. How did humanity come to visualize the Sun as a gaseous plasma? Why is its interior thought to contain blackbody radiation? Who were the first people to postulate that the density of the solar body varied greatly with depth? When did mankind first conceive that the solar surface was merely an illusion? What were the foundations of such thoughts? In this regard, a detailed review of the Sun’s thermodynamic history provides both a necessary exposition of the circumstance which accompanied the acceptance of the gaseous mod- els and a sound basis for discussing modern solar theories. It also becomes an invitation to reconsider the phase of the photosphere. As such, in this work, the contributions of Pierre Simon Laplace, Alexander Wilson, William Herschel, Hermann von Helmholtz, Herbert Spencer, Richard Christopher Carrington, John Frederick William Herschel, Father Pietro Angelo Secchi, Herve´ August Etienne Albans Faye, Edward Frankland, Joseph Norman Lockyer, Warren de la Rue, Balfour Stewart, Benjamin Loewy, and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, relative to the evolution of modern stellar models, will be discussed. Six great pillars created a gaseous Sun: 1) Laplace’s Nebular Hypothesis, 2) Helmholtz’ contraction theory of energy production, 3) Andrew’s elucidation of crit- ical temperatures, 4) Kirchhoff’s formulation of his law of thermal emission, 5) Plucker¨ and Hittorf’s discovery of pressure broadening in gases, and 6) the evolution of the stel- lar equations of state. As these are reviewed, this work will venture to highlight not only the genesis of these revolutionary ideas, but also the forces which drove great men to advance a gaseous Sun. 1 On the history of solar science ical paths followed by its founders [1–14], has at times over- Pondering upon the history of solar science [1–14], it be- looked the contributions and criticisms of “non-astronomers”. comes apparent that, in every age, the dominant theory of the Perhaps unable to accept the consequences stemming from internal constitution of the Sun reflected the state of human the discoveries of the present age, it has continued to perpet- knowledge. As understanding of the physical world grew, the uate ideas which can no longer hold any basis in the physical theories of old were slowly transformed. Eventually, under world. the burden of evidence, ancient ideas were destined to disap- 2 Pillars of a gaseous Sun pear completely from the realm of science, relinquished to the sphere of historical curiosity [2]. What was once considered Five great pillars gave birth to the gaseous Sun in the middle high thought, became discarded. and late 19th century. They were as follows: 1) Laplace’s If science is to advance, historical analysis must not solely nebular hypothesis [22, 23], 2) Helmholtz’ contraction the- reiterate the progress of civilization. Its true merit lies not in ory [24, 25], 3) Cagniard de la Tour’s discovery of critical the reminiscence of facts, the restatement of ancient ideas, phenomena [26,27] and Andrew’s elucidation of critical tem- and the reliving of time. Rather, scientific history’s virtue peratures [28, 29], 4) Kirchhoff’s formulation of his law of stems from the guidance it can impart to the evolution of mod- thermal emission [30–32], and 5) the discovery of pressure ern research. broadening in gases by Plucker,¨ Hittorf, Wullner,¨ Frankland, Historical compilations, dissected with contemporary sci- and Lockyer [33–37]. Today, the last four of these pillars entific reasoning, have the power to expose both the truths have collapsed, either as scientifically unsound (pillar 4), or and the errors which swayed our formation of a gaseous Sun as irrelevant with respect to discussions of the internal con- [15–21]. These models have evolved as a direct manifesta- stitution of the Sun and the nature of the photosphere (pillars tion of mankind’s physical knowledge in the 19th and 20th 2, 3, and 5). Only the first argument currently survives as rel- centuries. Through historical review, it can be demonstrated evant to solar theory, albeit in modified form. Nevertheless, that virtually every salient fact which endowed the Sun with each of these doctrines had acted as a driving force in creating a gaseous interior has actually been refuted or supplanted by a gaseous Sun.