Chinese Comrade Literature, Queer Political Reality, and the Tongzhi Movement in Mainland China Rachel Leng Undergraduate Honors Thesis Sanford School of Public Policy Duke University December 2012, Durham, NC Advisors: Professor Judith Kelley, Professor Kenneth Rogerson ABSTRACT This thesis explores the development of Mainland China’s online “Comrade Literature” (同志文学 tongzhi wenxue), a body of fiction linked to the experiences of Chinese homosexuals that emerged in the late 1990s. The central question is: How has Chinese Comrade Literature responded to changes in political rhetoric and government policy affecting queer identity in modern China? This thesis looks at samples of online Comrade stories as they correspond to political developments in China from 1996 to 2006, with an eye to how these narratives problematize the struggles of a marginalized queer Chinese population. An investigation of implicit and explicit references to laws, policies, and government action in Comrade stories reveals how they establish solidarity by communicating messages about China’s repressive political and social environment for homosexuals. The analysis focuses on the fictional texts themselves – on what they tell us about China’s political reality and State control affecting the gay community and what imagery they provide that can be interpreted as social mobilization and political protest. This thesis argues that this emergent queer literary discourse constitutes much more than meets the eye. It is not simply an expression of an underground gay culture; it is a dynamic form of resistance to the particular social and government discrimination towards Chinese homosexuality and protest against the broader environment of political repression in China. [i] ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to gratefully acknowledge the wholehearted supervision of Professor Judith Kelley and Professor Kenneth Rogerson for this thesis. I appreciate the time each of you took from your own work to make comments, suggestions, and critiques that have not only improved my thesis, but also made me a better writer. I am also grateful to Professor Frederick Mayer for sharing his knowledge of narrative research that inspired the foundational work of this thesis. I thank all the tongzhi who shared their stories with me. This thesis would not have been possible without their insight. Finally, I am indebted to my parents and friends for their love, understanding, and encouragement when it was most required. [ii] “Our biggest enemy consists of a small number of authoritarian organizations that are using the powerful national propaganda machine to subtly construct mainstream ideology. And our biggest worth, our ultimate goal in presenting queer content…is to challenge and oppose this mainstream ideology for the people of China. The revolution hasn't succeeded yet. Tongzhi, keep up the good work!" – Yangyang, one of the 2011 Beijing Queer Film Festival organizers in a press release after the government forcibly cancelled all film screenings, re-appropriating Sun Yat-Sen’s famous revolutionary statement to address the queer activist movement in China. [iii] TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...i Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………ii [Introduction: Homosexuality and Comrade Literature in Mainland China] ................................... 1 THE HISTORY OF SAME-SEX RELATIONS IN ANCIENT CHINA ....................................................... 2 THE SOCIOPOLITICAL REALITY OF HOMOSEXUALITY IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA ....................... 4 [Chapter 1: Understanding the Comrade Community in Mainland China] .................................... 10 CONTEMPORARY SCHOLARSHIP ON HOMOSEXUALITY IN MAINLAND CHINA ............................. 10 I. Research on Chinese Homosexuality from a Historical Perspective ............................. 10 II. Social Science Studies on Chinese Homosexuality and Tongzhi Identity Politics ......... 12 III. Discourse Exploring Queer Culture in the Humanities ............................................. 13 THE COMRADE COMMUNITY: DEFINING “TONGZHI” ................................................................. 15 [Chapter 2: Why Investigate Comrade Literature?] ........................................................................... 19 ON COMRADE “LITERATURE”: THE POLITICS OF HOMOSEXUAL STORYTELLING ....................... 19 TONGZHI SUBCULTURE: VIRTUAL FICTION AND POLITICAL REALITY ........................................ 25 SCOPE OF COMRADE FICTION ..................................................................................................... 28 [Chapter 3: Comrade Literature as Protest Mechanism] ................................................................... 30 EXAMINING COMRADE STORIES: FRAME THEORY AND NARRATIVE RESEARCH ........................ 30 I. THE DIAGNOSTIC FRAME: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND ATTRIBUTIONS ..................... 34 Narrative 1: Dystopian Imagery............................................................................................ 34 Narrative 2: Material Injustice .............................................................................................. 39 Narrative 3: Abstract Injustice .............................................................................................. 46 II. THE PROGNOSTIC FRAME: PROPOSED SOLUTIONS TO DIAGNOSED PROBLEMS ................ 53 Narrative 4: Breaking Down Stereotypes .............................................................................. 53 Narrative 5: Affirming Gay Love........................................................................................... 59 Narrative 6: Communication through Writing ...................................................................... 65 III. THE MOTIVATIONAL FRAME: RATIONALE FOR MOBILIZATION ....................................... 71 Narrative 7: Escape through Transformation ....................................................................... 72 Narrative 8: Role Model ........................................................................................................ 81 [Conclusion: Political Role of Comrade Literature in Mainland China] .......................................... 89 SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FROM FIELDWORK AND INTERVIEWS .................................................... 92 LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ......................................................... 95 FINAL REFLECTIONS ................................................................................................................... 97 [Bibliography] ....................................................................................................................................... 102 ENGLISH REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 102 CHINESE REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 109 COMRADE STORIES .................................................................................................................. 112 WEBSITES ................................................................................................................................. 112 [iv] INTERVIEWS AND FIELDWORK .................................................................................................. 113 [Appendices] .......................................................................................................................................... 114 I. CLASSICAL CHINESE NOVELS WITH HOMOEROTIC CONTENT ....................................... 114 II. EUPHEMISMS ALLUDING TO MALE SAME-SEX RELATIONS IN IMPERIAL CHINA ........... 115 III. ONLINE TONGZHI TERMS ............................................................................................... 116 IV. SELECTED LEGAL DOCUMENTS USED TO IMPRISON HOMOSEXUALS ............................. 117 V. BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AFFECTING MALE TONGZHI ....... 119 VI. TONGZHI WEBSITE SCREENSHOTS ................................................................................. 121 VII. ONLINE COMRADE NOVEL SUB-GENRES ...................................................................... 124 VIII. STATISTICS FOR SELECTED COMRADE NOVELS ............................................................. 125 IX. FRAME CATEGORIES AND NARRATIVE TYPES ............................................................... 126 X. TRANSLATED EXCERPT FOR BEIJING STORY(1996) ......................................................... 129 XI. TRANSLATED EXCERPT FROM THE ILLUSIVE MIND(2001).............................................. 130 [v] Chinese Comrade Literature, Queer Political Reality, and the Tongzhi Movement in Mainland China [Introduction: Homosexuality and Comrade Literature in Mainland China] This thesis analyzes online “Comrade Literature” (同志文学 tongzhi wenxue) from Mainland China, a fictional genre about the experiences of Chinese homosexuals that appeared on the internet in the late-1990s. The literature raises a series of questions not only about Chinese homosexuality, but also concerning social and political changes in modern China. For example, why is Chinese queer fiction called “Comrade” literature? Furthermore, why do non-gay Chinese read this literature and risk participating in pro-gay events? What is it about Comrade fiction that draws heterosexual Chinese youth to read, circulate, and even write their own homoerotic stories? This thesis argues that this emergent