Environmental and Demographic Change and Rural Violence in Peru: A Case Study of the District of Chuschi, Ayacucho by Athanasios (Tom) Deligiannis A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Athanasios (Tom) Deligiannis 2020 Environmental and Demographic Change and Rural Violence in Peru: A Case Study of the District of Chuschi, Ayacucho Athanasios (Tom) Deligiannis Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2020 Abstract Considerable debate exists about whether and how human-induced pressure on the natural environment contributes to violent conflict. This dissertation examines whether human-induced environmental and demographic change helped generate rural violence in the District of Chuschi, in the South-Central Andes of Peru in the latter half of the 20th century, in the years leading up to the Sendero Luminoso insurgency in 1980. The dissertation’s findings reveal that long-term patterns of resource capture and human-induced environmental and demographic change, combined with prevailing local, regional, and national political-economic currents in Peru over the 20th century to increase inter-community competition for valuable but limited agricultural resources – over range lands, crop lands, and water resources. In particular, these changes conditioned patterns of violence between two neighbouring communities in the District – the Community of Chuschi and the Community of Quispillacta. Changes aggravated conflictual relationships between Chuschi and Quispillacta over rights to long-contested resources that were essential to increasingly pressured livelihoods in both communities. Change and contest resulted in winners and losers, with implications for social stability years into the future. Quispillacta largely emerged as the victor in these community resource conflicts. However, their victory fostered enduring resentment in Chuschi - ii the traditional administrative centre of the District - and among Chuschi’s associated hamlets. These grievances spilled out during the Sendero insurgency as some in rival communities falsely accused Quispillacta of being a centre of Sendero militancy, accusations likely stemming from community members who lost out in the inter-community land competition. Quispillacta suffered terribly as a result in the Peruvian military’s counter-insurgency bloodletting, disproportionately more than Chuschi and its associated hamlets – score-settling by counter- insurgency. Human pressure on the local environment and people’s adaptive choices to these pressures thus helped condition patterns of violence in the decades before the Sendero insurgency, and patterns of violence once the insurgency heated up in the area. Understanding why violence took the shape that it did in Chuschi during the insurgency and over the previous century in various small- scale confrontations requires examining the interface of human-induced environmental change and demographic change, in the relation to socio-economic changes in the region. iii Acknowledgments I am deeply grateful to my family, friends, and colleagues, who have stood by me and supported me for many years as I completed this dissertation. First, I want to thank Tad Homer-Dixon for being the intellectual inspiration for this project, and for not giving up on me as the years passed and my dissertation remained unfinished. Without Tad’s continued support and encouragement, I would never have reached the end. Tad’s research and guidance over the years have pushed me to uncover and make sense of the complex local reality in Peru. I also want to thank the other members of my committee, Steven Bernstein at the University of Toronto, and Simon Dalby at the Balsillie School of International Affairs. Both have been extremely understanding of my progress, and provided tremendously insightful and helpful feedback on my dissertation. Gavin Smith was an early member of my committee who, unfortunately, had to leave the committee as the years dragged on; however, his participation and support was very important, given his extensive work in highland Peru. Kate Neville provided outstanding feedback and suggestions for improvement as the internal reader. Joshua Busby of the University of Texas at Austin made insightful suggestions as the external reader of this dissertation. Many people assisted me during my fieldwork in Peru. I would like to thank Kimberley Theidon for putting me in touch with Marcela Machaca at ABA, in Huamanga, Ayacucho. Marcela’s help was crucial for connecting me with my outstanding field assistants in the District of Chuschi, Hereberto Nuñez Mejiá and Mario Silverio Huamaní Conde. I owe a deep debt of gratitude to Hereberto and Mario for their assistance in arranging interviews and field assessments in Quispillaccta and Chuschi. I also want to thank Edwin Medina Ramírez, who accompanied us during our fieldwork in the District and assisted me with translation. The fieldwork would have been impossible without Hereberto, Mario, and Edwin. Don Theodosio Flores Galindo graciously allowed me to stay in his house in Llacctahurán during my fieldwork in the District. Don Theodosio’s taciturn presence was intimidating at first; but also inspired me to dig deeper to get to know the reality facing comuneros in the District. I would also like to thank the elected authorities of Chuschi and Quispillaccta for granting permission for my study: Vincente Chaupin Huaycha, who was Alcalde of Chuschi at the time, and the Varayoc of Quispillaccta – the traditional authorities. Over sixty community members in Chuschi and Quispillaccta graciously agreed to interviews during my time in the District, and I am eternally grateful to them for allowing me learn about their lives. In Huamanga, Yovanna Mendieta iv Tacuri and Hugo Sarmiento Medina assisted me with research. In Lima, my research assistant Vivien Weiner was outstanding in helping me connect with various Peruvian scholars and NGOs. I would also like to thank Martin Scurrah and Igidio Naveda Felix, who were then with Oxfam America, for their generous assistance and advice. Raul Grados and Luis G. Orellana graciously provided support and hospitality during my trips to Lima. During my time at UPEACE, in Costa Rica, Dr. Rolain Borel, Dr. Ronnie De Camino, Dr. David Hoffman, and Jan Breitling were outstanding colleagues who helped me understand the Central American agro-ecological reality. In Canada, I’m lucky to have wonderful friends and colleagues who have encouraged and supported me in completing my dissertation: Dr. Moshe Khurgel, Dr. Craig Johnson, Dr. Francine McKenzie, Dr. Jodi Salter, and Dr. Alicia Sliwinski, have been particularly important. Jodi’s encouragement two years ago to join her dissertation boot camp at the University of Guelph was instrumental in getting my dissertation organized and back on track. Finally, but most importantly, this project would never have been completed without the unconditional love and support of my family – especially my best friend and partner, Kelly Main, and my kids Eva and John. Kelly probably wants me to end this sentence as fast as possible, because then the dissertation will be finally finished. For the sacrifices that she’s made, her name should also be on the front cover. I promise that I’ll never again take my research or my marking on family holidays. Lastly, I want to thank my parents Elias and Evangelia Deligiannis, who showed me what could be achieved with hard work, even if you start with nothing. They were my original introduction into the lives of αγρότες, and I’ve never stopped learning from them. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi List of Appendices ....................................................................................................................... xiii Preface.......................................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1 Overview of case study region .............................................................................................3 Key findings and plan of dissertation.................................................................................15 Timeline of key events .......................................................................................................26 Chapter 2 Literature Review and Research Design: Do environmental scarcities impact violent conflict onset? ...............................................................................................................29 Introduction ........................................................................................................................29 Theories of revolution and rural rebellion .........................................................................33