Film Classification in Canada and the United States: The Freedom of Government Control? by Timothy Covell A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Canadian Studies Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2015 Timothy Covell Abstract The American film industry voluntarily classifies films, using the well-known MPAA ratings. The industry claims this is preferable and more liberal than the alternative approach of government classification. In Canada, film classification is mandatory in most jurisdictions, and performed by provincial governments. This thesis demonstrates that the Canadian government controlled mandatory ratings systems for films results in more liberal film ratings than the voluntary system in the United States, for most mainstream films. An analysis of one hundred recent releases and case studies support this conclusion. The histories and operations of the agencies in Canada and the United States, and differences among the provinces, are reviewed to identify factors leading to the different ratings, as well as challenges to the ratings systems. A key factor may be that Canadian agencies classify films not subject to MPAA classification. ii Acknowledgements It has been twenty years since I developed an interest in film censorship and started working towards a Master's Degree. Many people have helped along the way. At the beginning was Jacqueline Jenkins, now at the University of Calgary. I'd also like to thank George McKnight, José Sanchez, Charles O'Brien, and others in Film Studies at Carleton. Peter Hodgins of Canadian Studies assisted with various drafts of this thesis and other work in my area of interest. I am grateful for his assistance and direction. I am fortunate to have received advice and encouragement from André Loiselle for several years, on various projects, through my Film and Canadian Studies degrees. As my advisor, he has been patient, flexible, and generally great to work with. Thanks to Dorothyanne for support and encouragement with this and other efforts, and for challenging me to become a better writer and a better person. Thanks to Nancy for putting up with me being busy writing much of time, and for lots of movie nights, including some that were not research related. My parents, Katherine Covell and Brian Howe, retired university professors, have long provided great examples of academic achievement, and served as unofficial readers and advisors on this thesis. I appreciated their assistance, and am grateful that I was never in their classes. There is another party I would like to thank, but cannot mention by name due to a court order. I trust they will never think they were forgotten. iii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix List of Appendices .............................................................................................................. x 1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 1.1. American and Canadian Ratings Differences ....................................... 2 1.2. Rating Systems Background ................................................................. 3 1.3. Ratings Systems Relevance ................................................................... 5 1.4. Literature Review ................................................................................ 10 1.5. Theoretical Context ............................................................................. 11 1.6. Methodology ....................................................................................... 11 1.7. Parameters ........................................................................................... 13 1.8. Notes on Terms ................................................................................... 16 2. Literature Review .................................................................................... 18 2.1. International Film Ratings Comparisons ............................................ 18 2.2. Ratings in the USA .............................................................................. 20 2.3. Adult Sex Films in the USA ................................................................ 25 2.4. Ratings in Canada................................................................................ 29 iv 2.5. Adult Sex Films in Canada.................................................................. 31 3. History ..................................................................................................... 36 3.1. Origins - United States ........................................................................ 36 3.2. Origins - Canada.................................................................................. 38 3.3. Censorship Era - US ............................................................................ 39 3.4. Censorship Era - Canada ..................................................................... 41 3.5. Production Code Era - United States................................................... 43 3.6. Production Code Era - Canada ............................................................ 47 4. Legalization of Adult Sex Films ............................................................. 52 4.1. Early History of Adult Sex Films in the USA ..................................... 53 4.2. Development of the Adult Sex Feature ............................................... 54 4.3. The Decline of the Adult Sex Feature ................................................. 59 4.4. Early History of Adult Sex Films in Canada....................................... 62 4.5. Acceptance of Adult Sex Films in Canada.......................................... 67 4.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 72 5. Structure and Operation of the Agencies ................................................ 73 5.1. MPAA Structure .................................................................................. 73 5.2. MPAA Ratings .................................................................................... 74 5.3. Provincial Agency Structures .............................................................. 76 5.4. Provincial Ratings ............................................................................... 81 v 5.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 86 6. Comparing Classifications ...................................................................... 92 6.1. About the Data .................................................................................... 92 6.2. Discussion of English Language Agency Ratings .............................. 95 6.3. Comparison with Quebec Classifications ......................................... 100 6.4. Comparison with MPAA Classifications .......................................... 102 6.5. Conclusion ......................................................................................... 106 7. Case Study: Avatar ................................................................................ 112 7.1. Rating Avatar .................................................................................... 114 7.2. Canada / USA Comparison ............................................................... 118 7.3. Encoding and Decoding Ratings ....................................................... 119 7.4. Conclusion ......................................................................................... 124 8. Case Study: Pirates ............................................................................... 129 8.1. Rating Pirates in the United States ................................................... 134 8.2. Rating Pirates in Canada................................................................... 135 8.3. Conclusion ......................................................................................... 141 9. Case Study: Hounddog .......................................................................... 143 9.1. Hounddog and Independent Film Ratings in the USA ...................... 146 9.2. Hounddog and Festival Film Ratings in Canada ............................... 148 9.3. Conclusion ......................................................................................... 151 vi 10. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 153 Appendix A: Quebec Labels ........................................................................................... 160 Appendix B: Ontario Guidelines Summary Handout ..................................................... 161 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 162 vii List of Tables Table 1 - Agency Jurisdictions