i ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS, MASS MEDIA AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: THE NORTHERN NIGERIA EXPERIENCE RAPHAEL NOAH SULE BA, MSc, MA, (JOS) UJ/2012/PGAR/0294 A thesis in the Department of RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY, Faculty of Arts, Submitted to the School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Jos, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION of the UNIVERSITY OF JOS JULY 2015 ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this work is the product of my own research efforts; undertaken under the supervision of Professor Cyril O. Imo and has not been presented elsewhere for the award of a degree or certificate. All sources have been duly distinguished and appropriately acknowledged. --------------------------------- ------------------ RAPHAEL NOAH SULE DATE UJ/2012/PGAR/0294 iii CERTIFICATION This is to certify that the research work for this thesis and the subsequent preparation of this thesis by Raphael Noah Sule (UJ/2012/PGAR/0294) were carried out under my supervision. -------------------------------------------- Date----------------------- PROFESSOR CYRIL O. IMO SUPERVISOR ------------------------------------------- Date------------------------ PROFESSOR PAULINE MARK LERE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT ------------------------------------------- Date------------------------- PROFESSOR TOR J. IORAPUU DEAN, FACULTY OF ARTS iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study would not have been possible without the contributions of other people. The role of my Supervisor Prof. C. O. Imo in painstakingly going through my write-ups at the various stages, offering corrections and suggestions that have brought it this far cannot be overemphasized. I thank him for making such contributions. Special thanks equally go to all the members of staff in the Department of Religion and Philosophy, University of Jos. Of particular mention are Professor U. H. D. Danfulani the former Dean of Faculty of Arts, Professor P. M. Lere the HOD, Professor M. T. Yahya, Professor M. A. B. Gaiya, Professor D. McCain, Professor P. Onwochei, Professor J. M. Kangdim, Professor I. M. Ahmadu, Dr Y. K. Yilpet, Dr H. Shittu and Mrs C. A. Torkwembe. Members of staff of the National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies library especially the Librarian Mr Maman, and Mr Dada, who were very helpful in permitting me to use the NIPSS library in the course of this study. Similarly, I thank members of staff of the National Archives Jos, the University of Jos library staff, and members of staff of Nigeria Standard Newspaper’s library for their cooperation and assistance. I must also express my appreciation to my wife Deaconess Esther Sule Alifia for her assistance in making this dream a reality. My children, Comfort, Chide, Victor, Paul and Raphael Junior who were deprived of fatherly attention in the course of my study, deserve appreciation and special mention. I cannot forget the prayers of my grandpa Pa A. Alikali of blessed memory, moms I. Ijaja (late), Mrs J. Ameh, grandmas A. Ajine (late), A. Amina (late), my dad S. Alifia, uncles S. Alifia (late), M. Alifia, my brothers E. Alifia, D. S. Oyibo, S. Alifia and sister A. Laluba who passed on as we approached the completion of this thesis. v Before and during the course of this study too, I came across many friends and Christian brothers whose positive roles in my life cannot be ignored with ease. On this note, I appreciate the following people, Mr S. Otowo (late), Mr A. Abdullahi, Dr J. Gyan, Dr and Mrs D. Salifu, Prof D. Shishma, Elder and Deaconess S. S. Amehson, Elder and Deaconess J. Apeh, Assoc Prof (Elder) A. Wada, Prof S. Egwu, Dr J. Galadima, Deacon A. Major, Elder T. Obateru, Barrister A. Okpe, Dr T. Audu, Pastor and Deaconess J. Amego, Pharm (Elder) and Mrs I. Utenoh, Elder and Mrs I. Idachaba, Barrister and Mrs G. Salifu, Dr P. Ekele, Dr S. Enwereji, Bro J. Itodo, Bro A. Sani, K. Madueke, I. Abdussalam, U. Yortese, F. Ogbole and many others that I cannot mention here. Thank you and may God bless you all. vi DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty for His grace and enablement, my dear wife Deaconess Esther Sule Alifia, the blessed memory of my late mother Ikani and to the memory of all those who lost their lives as a result of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT --- --- --- --- --- --- --- PAGE TITLE PAGE -- --- --- --- --- --- --- i DECLARATION- --- --- --- --- --- ii CERTIFICATION --- --- --- --- iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- --- --- --- iv DEDICATION --- --- --- --- vi TABLE OF CONTENTS --- - --- --- vii LIST OF TABLES --- --- --- --- xi ABSTRACT --- --- --- --- --- --- --- xii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY --- --- --- 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM --- --- 8 1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY --- 9 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY --- --- --- 10 1.5 METHODOLOGY --- --- --- --- 11 1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY -- 12 1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY --- --- 13 1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY --- --- --- 14 1.9 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK--- --- --- --- 15 1.9.1 Friederich Hegel ---- ---- ---- ---- --- --- 16 1.9.2 Karl Marx --- --- --- --- --- --- 17 1.9.3 Max Weber --- --- --- --- --- --- 18 1.10 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS--- --- --- 21 1.10.1 Conflict--- --- --- --- --- --- --- 21 1.10.2 Ethnic Conflict--- --- --- --- --- --- 21 viii 1.10.3 Religious Conflict- --- --- --- --- --- 22 1.10.4 Ethno-Religious Conflict --- --- --- --- 22 1.10.5 Mass Media--- --- --- --- --- --- 23 1.10.6 Peace Journalism --- --- --- --- --- 23 1.10.7 Development --- --- --- --- 24 1.10.8 Northern Nigeria --- --- --- --- --- 27 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 CAUSES OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS--- 29 2.2 ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT --- --- --- --- --- 38 2.3 MANAGEMENT OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA --- --- --- --- --- --- 49 2.4 ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS AND THE MASS MEDIA - 54 2.5 THE MASS MEDIA AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 61 2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW AND GAPS IDENTIFIED --- --- --- --- --- --- 65 CHAPTER THREE MAJOR ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA 3.1 THE MAITATSINE CRISES --- --- --- --- 69 3.2 THE SHARIAH CONTROVERSIES -- --- --- 72 3.3 THE ORGANIZATION OF ISLAMIC CONFERENCE CONTROVERSIES --- --- --- --- --- 77 3.4 CRISES GENERATED BY OTHER CAUSES BUT LATER ASSUMED RELIGOUS COLOURATIONS --- - 85 3.4.1 The Kafanchan, Kaduna, Zaria and Katsina Conflicts -- 86 3.4.2 The Zango Kataf, Conflicts --- --- --- --- 87 3.4.3 Jos Crises of 1994, 2001, 2002, 2004 and 2008 --- 88 3.4.4 The Yelwa and Shendam, Wase crises in Plateau South Senatorial Zone- 93 3.4.5 The Reinhard Bonke Crisis in Kano --- --- --- 98 3.4.6 The Tafawa Balewa Crises --- --- --- --- 100 3.5 CRISES RELATED TO GLOBAL ISSUES -- --- 102 ix 3.5.1 The Denmark Cartoons’ Crises --- --- --- 102 3.5.2 The Miss World Pageant Crises --- --- --- 107 3.6 THE JAMA'ATU AHLIS SUNNA LIDDA'AWATI WAL-JIHAD (PEOPLE COMMITED TO THE PROPAGATION OF THE PROPHET’S TEACHING AND JIHAD) ALIAS BOKO HARAM PHENOMENON ----- --- --- --- 112 3.7 THE 2011 POST PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION VIOLENCE 122 CHAPTER FOUR THE FUNCTION AND PLACE OF MASS MEDIA REPORTAGE IN ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS AND DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN NIGERIA 4.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE MASS MEDIA AND ETHICS OF REPORTAGE --- --- --- --- --- 124 4.1.1 Ethics of Journalism --- -- --- --- --- 126 4.1.2 Code of Ethics for Society of Professional Journalists-- 127 4.1.3 Code of Ethics for Nigerian Journalists--- --- --- 131 4.1.4 Code of Ethics for Conflict Reporting --- --- --- 135 4.2 SURVEY OF MASS MEDIA REPORTAGE OF ETHNO- RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS IN NORTHERN NIGERIA 138 4.2.1 The Local Media --- --- --- 138 4.2.2 The International Media --- --- --- --- 183 4.3 EVALUATION OF THE MEDIA REPORTAGE OF ETHNO- RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS --- --- -- --- --- 193 4.4 ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS, MASS MEDIA AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT --- --- --- 198 4.4.1 Effects of Ethno-Religious Conflicts on the Mass Media -- --- 202 CHAPTER FIVE EFFECTS OF THE PATTERNS OF REPORTAGE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION AND NORTHERN NIGERIA 5.1 IMPLICATIONS OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS REPORTAGE ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT --- -- --- --- 207 5.1.1 Economic Effects --- --- --- --- 208 5.1.2 Political Effects --- --- -- --- --- 209 5.1.3 Social Effects --- --- --- --- --- 210 x 5.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ROLE OF THE MASS MEDIA REPORTAGE ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT --- 212 5.2.1 Ownership Factors --- --- --- --- --- 212 5.2.2 Religious Factors --- --- --- --- 215 5.2.3 Political Factors --- --- --- --- --- 217 5.2.4 Globalization Factors --- --- --- --- 218 5.2.5 Professional Factors --- --- --- --- 220 5.2.6 Economic Factors --- --- --- --- 223 5.3 SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF THE EFFECTS OF MASS MEDIA REPORTAGE ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT --- --- --- --- --- 225 CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS --- --- --- 242 6.2 CONCLUSION --- ------ --- --- --- 243 6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS --- --- --- 245 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE --- --- --- 246 WORKS CITED --- --- --- --- --- --- 247 xi xi LIST OT TABLES TABLE PAGE 1 List of Member Countries of the Organization of Islamic Conference as at 1985 when Nigeria was Admitted --- --- --- 80 2 List of Member Countries of the Organization of Islamic Conference as at 2011 - - - - - - - 81 3 List of some major Newspapers and Magazines, their Locations, Editors, Publishers in Nigeria, including FRCN Kaduna - --- 141 xii Abstract This study has examined the extent to which the mass media serves as instrument of escalation, generation and de-escalation of religious-related conflicts in the