Université d’Oran 2 Faculté des Langues étrangères THESE Pour l’obtention du diplôme de Doctorat en Sciences En Langue Anglaise A Nation’s Collapse: The Civil War Tactic and Impact Case Study: Sierra Leone (1991-2002) Présentée et soutenue publiquement par : Mme Maazouzi Karima Devant le jury composé de : BELMEKKI Belkacem Pr Université d’Oran 2 Président SAHEL Malika MCA E.N.S.B Alger Rapporteur BOUHADIBA Zoulikha Pr Université d’Oran 2 Examinateur MOULFI Leila Pr Université d’Oran 2 Examinateur DANI Fatiha MCA Université d’Oran 1 Examinateur HALLOUCHE Nadjouia MCA Université Sidi Belabbes Examinateur Année 2016-2017 Dedication I would like to dedicate this humble work to: My beloved parents, For whom I owe a special feeling of gratitude and wish a long happy life; My lovely brothers, Abdelhak and Amine, My sweet sisters, Soumia and Bahidja, For their sound advice, support and assistance; My dear husband, For his support and encouragement; My kind sisters in law, Nadia and Nour El Houda, My lovely niece and nephews: Aya, Wassim, and Anis, For whom I wish a successful future; My dear mother in law, My friends and All those who fight for peace. Acknowledgements First of all praise for the Almighty Allah for giving us insight, strength and the ability to accomplish this humble work. No words can express my heartfelt thanks to my supervisor Dr. Sahel Malika for her unwavering support, warm encouragement, prompt inspiration and sound advice. May God reward her for her meticulous scrutiny and patience. I’m so acknowledged in particular to Professor Borsali Fewzi for his overwhelming guidance, constant encouragement, suggestions and constructive criticism which contributed immensely in the evolution of my ideas during my research pursuit. Really, it has been a honor to work with him. May God reward him for his sincere performance in his work. I would thank profusely the member of the jury for accepting to examine my work. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my dear lovely parents, sisters, brothers and husband for their care, encouragement and support. I would also like to extend my sincere gratitude to my colleagues, and all those who directly or indirectly encouraged me. Abstract Sierra Leone is among the African countries which plunged into a brutal armed conflict that lasted for a long time and had disastrous effects on the country. The war in this country was a product of a complex combination of both internal and external factors. The conflict went on for many years with the rebel forces which used terror tactics of various designs to instill fear and get recognition from the civilian population. Its inability to provide its own security led to its dependence on foreign mercenaries for security.Peace accords provided a framework for a speedy disarmament process. Moreover, external intervention and committed response of the international community, including for example ECOMOG, UNAMSIL and the British army were very important in coercing the warring factions to a negotiating table. As disarmament progressed, peace began to seem more attainable. Thus, the disarmament programme was completed in January, 2002 and the war was officially declared over. The conflict destroyed all economic activities and social and agricultural projects were vandalized or completely looted. Consequently, the crises left the country much more disenchanted. This interruption however, provided an opportunity for the government and people to set fresh goals and priorities for the Sierra Leonean society. Furthermore, they have to start all over again to rebuild their lives and rehabilitate the structures which served them well over the years. The core purpose of this work is to seek the origins and reasons that were behind the onset of the civil war in Sierra Leone and the efforts made to end it. Subsequently, it attempts to highlight the impact of the civil war on life in Sierra Leone and how Sierra Leoneans were displaced, brutalised and tortured, and the devastating effects of the conflict on the social, political, economic field and the infrastructure of the country as a whole. Key words: Sierra Leone, civil war, terror tactic, child soldiers, intervention, peace, impact. Table of Contents Dedication Acknowledgments Abstract Table of Contents…………………………………………………… I List of Abbreviations……………………………………………… IV List of Maps……………………………………………………….. VI List of Tables………………………………………………………. VII List of Figures…………………………………………………….. VIII General Introduction…………………………………………… 1 Chapter One: Historical Background of Sierra Leone Civil War. Introduction 1. History of Sierra Leone before the Civil War................................ 6 1.1Historical Overview...................................................................... 6 1.2 Sierra Leone People..................................................................... 11 1.2.1Sierra Leone Ethnic Groups...................................................... 11 1.2.2 Ethno-Regional Divisions........................................................ 13 1.2.3 Marginalization of the Native Population................................ 15 1.2.4 Sierra Leone Alienated Youth.................................................. 19 1.3 The Revolutionary United Front................................................. 26 1.3.1The RUF Political Origins ....................................................... 27 1.3.2 The RUF’s Leader Foday Saybana Sankoh ............................ 29 1.4 Child Soldiers............................................................................. 33 1.5Women and the Armed Conflict in Sierra Leone………………. 38 Conclusion…………………………………………………………. 43 Chapter Two: Sierra Leone Conflict: Its Causes, Dynamics Threat and Insecurity. Introduction 1.The Causes and Dynamics of the Conflict in Sierra Leone............ 46 1.1 Political Turmoil.......................................................................... 47 1.1.1 Poor Governance1968-1992..................................................... 47 1.2. The Principal Economic Factors. ……………………………… 54 I 1. 2.1 Diamonds Curse........................................................................... 55 1.2.2 Lebanese Connection................................................................... 61 1.3 Regional Factors........................................................................... ... 68 1.3.1 The Libyan Connection................................................................. 68 1.3.2 The Immediate Impact of the Liberian Civil War......................... 72 1.4 Aid and other External Resources.................................................. 76 1.4.1 External Assistance to the Sierra Leonean Government............. 76 1.4.2 Trafficking of Arms, Ammunition and Drugs................................ 83 2. The Onset of the Civil War and the Internal Factions Strategy 87 2.1 The Ongoing of the War............................................................... 88 2.2 Internal Factions in the Conflict…………………………...…….... 93 2.2.1 The Revolutionary United Front Terror Tactic in the War............ 94 2.2.2 The Sierra Leone Army (SLA) and the RUF................................. 96 2.2.3 The Violent Conflict and the Rise of the Civil Defence (CDF).... 98 2 .3 Return to Civilian Government........................................................ 101 2.3.1 1996 Presidential and Parliamentary Elections………….………. 102 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 106 Chapter Three: The Transition from War to Peace Introduction 1. Attempts at Peace............................................................................. 110 1.1 Peace Accords.................................................................................. 110 1.1.1 Abidjan Peace Accord in 1996...................................................... 110 1.1.2 The Conakry Peace Plan in October 1997..................................... 112 1.1.3 Lomé Peace Accord in 1999......................................................... 113 1.2 Women as Mediators and Peace Makers....................................... 117 1.3 External Intervention...................................................................... 126 1.3.1 Economic Community of the West African States....................... 127 1.3.2 UN Intervention............................................................................ 133 1.3.3 Great Britain Intervention............................................................. 137 1.3.4 Demobilisation Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR).............. 140 Process in Sierra Leone 2.The End of the Civil War and the Official Attainment of Peace....... 144 2.1 The Last Steps towards Disarmament and Peace.………….…….. 144 2.2 The First Abuja Ceasefire …………………………...................... 146 3. The Path to Abuja II ……………………………………………….. 146 Conclusion ............................................................................................ 149 II Chapter Four: The Post Civil War Period. Introduction 1. Impact on the Population................................................................... 152 1.1The Impact of the Conflict on Children and Women....................... 152 1.2 Internally Displaced Persons (IDP’s) and Refugees....................... 160 1.3 People Disabled by the War........................................................... 164 1.4 Health............................................................................................. 165 1.5 Education......................................................................................