NATIONAL LANDSCAPES The Australian Literary Community and Environmental Thought in the 1930s and 1940s Jayne Regan June 2017 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Australian National University © Copyright by Jayne Regan 2017 Thesis Certification I declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of History at the Australian National University, is wholly my own original work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged and has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. __________________ __________________ Jayne Regan Date Abstract In 1944 Nettie Palmer, a leading figure in the Australian literary community, asked ‘what is the human value of this last Continent, which stepped straight into the age of industry, world-communications, world-wars, and accepted them all?’ Her question, posed at the height of World War Two, captures well the anxieties that drove Australian literary production across the 1930s and 1940s. During these decades the atmosphere of international catastrophe mingled with a variety of distinctly Australian colonial insecurities and incited a literary effort to enhance the country’s cultural ‘value’. Writers set themselves the task of ushering in an era of cultural ‘maturity’ in Australia as a bulwark against a variety of perceived external and internal threats. This thesis explores the ways that the Australian environment was co-opted into this mission. I argue that unlocking the supposedly untapped and elusive spiritual and material potential of the continent was considered a critical step toward both economic prosperity and national and cultural adulthood. Writers responded to environmental events and problems that were specific to the 1930s and 1940s: their writing registered changing approaches to closer settlement, the rise of institutionalised science, the environmental implications of new technologies and an emerging ecological consciousness. Their imaginative engagement with these processes – available to us in the books, poems, stories and letters they left behind – reveal the ways that contemporary environmental issues provoked and deepened literary concerns about white Australian belonging on the continent. This thesis is a fusion of historical, literary and environmental approaches. I highlight specific authors – Nettie Palmer, Henrietta Drake-Brockman, Frank Dalby Davison and Brooke Nicholls, M. Barnard Eldershaw, Ian Mudie, William Hatfield and Flexmore Hudson – who wrote directly or indirectly about the Australian landscape in the 1930s and 1940s. Although they did not always share a unified environmental, political or even literary sensibility, this cohort was united by a sense of the social responsibility of writers and a desire to locate in Australia’s varied landscapes a national culture that they hoped would prove robust in the face of the catastrophes of the early to mid-twentieth century. Contents Acknowledgements i List of Abbreviations iii List of Illustrations iv Introduction 1 1. Nettie Palmer’s Dream and D.H. Lawrence’s Disillusion 31 2. ‘A Nation of Gamblers’: Henrietta Drake-Brockman and Soldier 61 Settlement Schemes 3. Roadside Beauty: Frank Dalby Davison and Brooke Nicholls Drive 93 the East Coast 4. ‘The Synthetic Stronghold of Democracy’: Canberra in M. Barnard 125 Eldershaw’s Plaque With Laurel 5. ‘Racy of the Soil’: Ian Mudie, Right-wing Nationalism and the South 159 Australian Soil Erosion Crisis 6. Poets, Dreamers and Engineers: William Hatfield Imagines Inland 191 Irrigation for Postwar Australia 7. A Cosmopolitan Jindyworobak: Flexmore Hudson, Nationalism and 223 World-Mindedness Conclusion 253 Bibliography 263 Acknowledgements This thesis has been made possible by the support, encouragement and kindness of many people. First thanks must go to my supervisor Professor Tom Griffiths who has been unfailingly enthusiastic about my project from the very beginning. I have been reassured, energised and challenged by his gentle guidance, insightful feedback on drafts and unfailing confidence in my abilities. Tom’s contagious passion for the discipline of history has shaped my own development as a historian – for his support and generosity I am deeply grateful. Thanks are also due to the two additional members of my supervisory panel. Professor Nicholas Brown’s extensive knowledge of twentieth-century Australia has enriched this thesis. I am grateful for his perceptive comments and advice, which have always pushed me to think more deeply about my research. Dr Julieanne Lamond has ensured this thesis remained in conversation with literary studies scholarship and her rigorous examination of drafts has improved my writing immeasurably. Julieanne has also endeavoured to broaden my academic experience through additional research work; it has been a particular pleasure to work alongside her for Australian Literary Studies . I have also benefited from guidance and support beyond this official panel of advisers. Dr Carolyn Strange, the School of History’s Graduate Director, has been consistently encouraging and reassuring throughout my candidature. A range of other scholars, both within the School of History and further afield, have also lent their valuable expertise and advice. I would especially like to thank Frank Bongiorno, Leigh Dale, Andrea Gaynor, Meggie Hutchinson, Rebecca Jones, Martin Leer, Emily O’Gorman, Libby Robin and Angela Woollacott. The historians of the Centre for Environmental History have been another source of encouragement and enthusiasm, and participants in the School of History Writing Group offered valuable feedback on a draft of chapter two. I am grateful too for the support offered by the School of History administrative team, particularly Karen Smith. It has been a pleasure to be a member of a wonderful cohort of doctoral students in the School of History. Their collegiality, generosity and intelligence have enhanced my experience of PhD life enormously. Robyn Curtis and Megan Kelly have been especially good friends; the challenges of the postgraduate journey have been eased by their sympathy and good humour. i I have been assisted by numerous librarians and archivists at institutions around the country. Special thanks go to the staff at the National Library of Australia, Mitchell Library, State Library of South Australia and State Library of Western Australia. I am also thankful to Rory Hudson, who kindly granted me permission to use the papers of Flexmore Hudson and offered important feedback on an early draft of chapter seven, and Trevar Langlands and Maureen Kelly who granted access to the records of the Fellowship of Australian Writers. Jasmine Sarin – at JS Koori Designs – produced the fantastic maps included in this thesis. I greatly appreciate her ability to respond creatively to the vaguest of suggestions and her patience in the process of fine-tuning the maps. This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship and a range of other bursaries and grants enhanced my scholarly experience. The ANU’s Vice Chancellor’s HDR Travel Grant in combination with a travel bursary from the European Association for Urban History enabled me to attend two European conferences and present my research in an international forum. The ANU Centre for Environmental History kindly sponsored my attendance at the Darwin History Colloquium. The Rachel Carson Centre sponsored my attendance at a graduate workshop held at the Renmin University of China, at which I received important feedback on an early draft of chapter three. The Australian Historical Association provided scholarly mentoring which was crucial in the development of chapter five. My friends and family have offered valuable support and understanding throughout my postgraduate years. For ensuring I continued to participate in life outside the Coombs Building I would like to thank Mal Briggs, Rochelle Fowler, Angie Hoang, Angie Nguyen, Kam Noack, Jas Sarin and Ness Vella. My brother Tom Regan offered his printing expertise and – along with April Holcombe, Kaz Aslimoska and an assortment of other roustabouts – always lent me a bed during my research trips to Sydney. My parents Mark and Ree Regan have always supported my academic endeavours; dad’s long held passion for history inspired my path and mum’s newfound interest in family history proved a welcome distraction from my own work. Final thanks go to my sister Beth Regan and partner Rob Hay. Beth always ensured I was well fed and never failed to make me laugh, even during the most challenging of times. Rob has lived with my doctoral research from the very beginning; his patience, understanding, love – and IT support! – made this thesis possible. ii List of Abbreviations AIF Australian Imperial Force ANZAAS Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science ANZAC Australian and New Zealand Army Corps APA Aborigines Progressive Association CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CLF Commonwealth Literary Fund CPA Communist Party of Australia FAW Fellowship of Australian Writers NLA National Library of Australia NAA National Archives of Australia PEN Poets, Playwrights, Editors, Essayists, Novelists RSSILA Returned Sailors’ and Soldiers’ Imperial League of Australia SLSA State Library of South Australia TVA Tennessee Valley Authority UAP United Australia Party UNESCO United Nations Educational,