Where should I study? International students’ perceptions of higher education in the UK, Ireland, and the U.S. by Cheryl Ann Rounsaville B.Sc., M.Sc. Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2011 Abstract In the thesis I examine international student decision-making arguing that there is a gap in knowledge about the theoretical frameworks which have been applied to understanding this issue. A comprehensive review of the literature showed that thus far the foremost theory utilised for explaining international student decision-making is the Push-Pull Theory of Migration, a theory which is primarily quantitative. This research innovatively uses a theoretical framework combining three influential capital theories based on a qualitative methodology. Using this theoretical framework, I sought a deeper, and potentially new and different understanding of why international students choose to study abroad and why they select particular host countries – the two questions traditional Push-Pull Theory seeks to answer. The three capital theories used are Human, Cultural and Social Capital. Using these to understand the decision-making of international students begins with the premise that individuals invest in international education in the hope of achieving some aim or reaping some benefit. As these theories originate from two different disciplines, I argue that such an approach provides a more multifaceted perspective for understanding students’ decision-making. Each of these theories, including their strengths and weaknesses, is discussed in detail in the thesis. The context for the study is provided through an examination of the impact of globalisation and neo-liberalism on the political, economic, socio-cultural, and technological trends of recent decades. It also considers the growing internationalisation and marketisation of higher education, including a greater emphasis on and expansion of international student recruitment and mobility. The research notes that individuals are increasingly responsible for their own success in the global knowledge economy. International education is one way in which students can make themselves competitive in the labour market as well as obtain valuable socio- cultural benefits. The research emphasises that higher education is becoming a privately rather than publicly-funded activity in which individual students (and often their families) 1 make the decisions about whether or not to study abroad and where. Host country, source country, and student perspectives are considered. The research focused on international postgraduates originating from five Asian source countries, studying in six disciplines, and enrolled at universities in three different English- speaking host countries. Data on why students decided to study abroad and why they selected their host country was gathered using questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. The student participants in the research were already enrolled in their host universities at the time of data collection thus enabling me to investigate post-enrolment the reasons for their decisions. The combined theoretical framework was used to analyse and categorise the data based on whether students’ answers referred primarily to human, cultural or social capital. The analysis revealed that for each form of capital, the decisions made by these students were based on both the capital they possessed and had access to prior to international study (existing capital) and the capital they hoped to gain from going abroad (potential capital). Existing and potential capital were broken down further into relevant themes and sub- themes. The analyses also showed that human capital factors were most influential, followed by cultural capital and then social capital factors. In addition there was significant overlap among the forms of capital. Finally, the implications and limitations of the research are considered along with recommendations for further research. 2 Acknowledgements I have many thanks to give for all the help and support I received during my doctoral journey. First and foremost, to my father, Dr. George A. Rounsaville, for his constant encouragement, love, support, and for providing the resources necessary for me to undertake a PhD. Next, to my mother, husband and sister without whose support and encouragement I would not have completed the thesis. Lastly, to all the people from my days in Washington who encouraged me and helped me with my application, especially Dr. France Pruitt and Dr. Thomas Mitchell. My sincerest thanks to Professor W. John Morgan for his continued support and patience through what must have seemed like five very long years reading about international students, as well as to Dr. Anne Convery and Professor Simon McGrath for their help in bringing the thesis together. Many thanks to my friends and colleagues at Nottingham for their friendship and advice, especially Musa, Caron, Paola, Fella, Eleanor, Monira, Engin, Rosalind and Filip. Thanks to the staff of all the universities I targeted in the research for their help in accessing students. Finally, my heartfelt thanks go out to the international students who took time from their busy schedules to complete my survey, and especially to those who consented to be interviewed. I truly enjoyed meeting all of them and hearing their stories. They showed me that while they are often portrayed as numbers grouped according to host or source country, field or level of study, they all have individual stories – and compelling reasons - for how they came to be studying in countries far from their homes and loved ones. 3 Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................... 0 Acknowledgements .................................................................................. 3 Table of Contents ..................................................................................... 4 List of Tables in Text .............................................................................. 10 List of Figures ........................................................................................ 10 List of Appendices.................................................................................. 11 Preface .................................................................................................. 12 Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................... 14 The Impetus for the Research .............................................................. 14 International Students and Terrorism in the U.S. ................................ 14 International Students and Terrorism in the UK .................................. 16 The Importance of International Students .............................................. 17 The Research Questions ...................................................................... 18 The Research Design ........................................................................... 20 The Study Population .......................................................................... 20 The Organisation of the Thesis ............................................................. 21 Chapter 2: The Context .......................................................................... 22 Defining Globalisation ......................................................................... 22 Economic Trends ............................................................................ 23 Technological Trends ....................................................................... 24 Socio-Cultural Trends ...................................................................... 25 Political Trends ............................................................................... 25 The Knowledge Economy ................................................................. 26 Globalisation and Higher Education ....................................................... 27 National Level ................................................................................ 27 Increasing Demand for Access to Higher Education .......................... 28 Decreasing Public Funding of Higher Education ................................ 29 Institutional Level ........................................................................... 30 Globalisation, Internationalisation, and Higher Education ......................... 31 The Global Market for Higher Education ................................................. 32 Education as a Tradable Service ....................................................... 33 International Higher Education as a Service Export ............................. 33 Branding and Reputation ................................................................. 34 Providers in the Marketplace ............................................................ 34 4 The Competition for International Students ............................................ 35 Student Flow Patterns and Demand .................................................. 35 Flow Trends ................................................................................... 37 The Major Players ........................................................................ 38 The Middle Powers (and Regionalism) ............................................ 39 The Shape Shifters ...................................................................... 39 The Emerging Contenders ...........................................................