DECEMBER 2019 P A T M O R E E T A L . 3221 Topographic Control of Southern Ocean Gyres and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current: A Barotropic Perspective RYAN D. PATMORE,PAUL R. HOLLAND, AND DAVID R. MUNDAY British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, United Kingdom ALBERTO C. NAVEIRA GARABATO University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom DAVID P. STEVENS University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom MICHAEL P. MEREDITH British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, United Kingdom (Manuscript received 5 April 2019, in final form 27 September 2019) ABSTRACT In the Southern Ocean the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is significantly steered by large topographic features, and subpolar gyres form in their lee. The geometry of topographic features in the Southern Ocean is highly variable, but the influence of this variation on the large-scale flow is poorly understood. Using idealized barotropic simulations of a zonal channel with a meridional ridge, it is found that the ridge geometry is important for determining the net zonal volume transport. A relationship is observed between ridge width and volume transport that is determined by the form stress generated by the ridge. Gyre formation is also highly reliant on the ridge geometry. A steep ridge allows gyres to form within regions of unblocked geostrophic (f/H) contours, with an increase in gyre strength as the ridge width is reduced. These relationships among ridge width, gyre strength, and net zonal volume transport emerge to simultaneously satisfy the conservation of momentum and vorticity. 1. Introduction responsible for the meridional exchange of water masses between the Southern Ocean and the basins to the north The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and (Speer et al. 2000). The lower cell of this overturning is Southern Ocean gyres are key components of the global reliant on diabatic processes that predominately occur in climate system. The Southern Ocean forms the primary the vicinity of Southern Ocean gyres (Naveira Garabato pathway for communication between the Atlantic, et al. 2014) and, thus, gyre dynamics are implicated in Indian, and Pacific Oceans (Talley 2013; Naveira overturning activity. Garabato et al. 2014). Water, heat, salt, and other The Southern Ocean has numerous topographic fea- important tracers are transported zonally between tures with scales similar to terrestrial mountain ranges, these ocean basins around Antarctica via the ACC spanning distances of O(1000) km. Large-scale topo- (Talley 2013), which has an estimated total volume 2 graphic features are of particular importance in the transport of 173.3 6 10.7Sv (1Sv [ 106 m3 s 1) Southern Ocean (Hughes and Killworth 1995)andare (Donohue et al. 2016). A double overturning cell is known to have a significant effect on steering the path of the ACC (Gordon et al. 1978; Killworth 1992). Denotes content that is immediately available upon publica- tion as open access. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/ Corresponding author: Ryan D. Patmore, [email protected] licenses/by/4.0/). DOI: 10.1175/JPO-D-19-0083.1 Ó 2019 American Meteorological Society 3222 JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY VOLUME 49 FIG. 1. The f/h for the Southern Hemisphere with ocean fronts and gyre contours overlaid; f/h shading 2 (the numbers are 3 10 8) is bounded by the f/h values used in Marshall (1995). The three ACC fronts are plotted using data from Orsi et al. (1995) and are defined as: the Subantarctic Front (SAF), the Polar Front (PF), and the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front (SACCF). The two gyres, the Weddell Gyre (WG) and the Ross Gyre (RG), are plotted using recent satellite data from Armitage et al. (2018). Figure 1 highlights the effect of topography on the vorticity means that flow tends to align with contours ACC, illustrating the influence of topographic steering. of f/H (geostrophic contours). A notable feature that steers the ACC is the Pacific– The process of topographic steering has a central Antarctic Ridge, which deflects the current northward role in the momentum balance of the Southern Ocean. over the western flank of the ridge until it passes Wind stress provides a source of momentum at the through the fracture zones to the north. surface of the ocean. To satisfy the momentum balance The primary influence of topographic steering is there must be an equal and opposite sink. The merid- best described in terms of vorticity and vertical ional deflection of the ACC by topography is associ- stretching. The context for describing large-scale flow ated with form stress, the primary zonal momentum in this way was first outlined by Rossby (1936) and sink balancing the wind stress in the Southern Ocean later named in Rossby et al. (1940) as potential vor- (Munk and Palmén1951; Wolffetal.1991; Stevens ticity. Flow must conserve potential vorticity, and and Ivchenko 1997; Masich et al. 2015). Form stress to leading order it does so by maintaining f/H,where develops where the ACC is subject to inertial effects f is the Coriolis parameter and H 5 h 1 h is the water or bottom stress as it traverses topography (Naveira column thickness, with h being the distance from Garabato et al. 2013). Under these conditions, the the resting ocean surface to the bottom topography ACC deviates from geostrophic contours leading to a and h being the sea surface height (SSH) anomaly. As lateral offset in SSH with respect to the topography. A flow is directed toward the peak of a ridge, it travels net pressure force across topography associated with equatorward to satisfy conservation of potential this offset in SSH leads to a generation of form stress vorticity. Flow then reverses direction and travels (Stewart and Hogg 2017). Topography is important poleward as the water column thickness increases on in regulating the net zonal transport of the ACC. One the lee side of the ridge. Conservation of potential aspect of this topographic control is related to form DECEMBER 2019 P A T M O R E E T A L . 3223 stress (Munk and Palmén1951). A zonal momentum stems from nonlinearity. The form stress is largely balance between bottom stress and wind stress results governed by topographic Rossby waves (Thompson in an unrealistically large volume transport in com- and Naveira Garabato 2014), which require nonlinear parison with a balance between form stress and wind dynamics (McCartney 1976; Johnson 1977). This stress (Munk and Palmén1951). highlights the importance of understanding the case The volume transport through a channel is also sen- with locally unblocked geostrophic contours in a sitive to the proportion of blocked geostrophic contours. nonlinear system. In an area of unblocked geostrophic contours, the Progress has been made on the nonlinear case with dynamics are described by a ‘‘linear free mode’’ (Read dynamical discussions given by Treguier and McWilliams et al. 1986; Hughes et al. 1999; Tansley and Marshall (1990), Wolff et al. (1991),andStevens and Ivchenko 2001) and consequently a through channel flow can (1997). However, unlike the linear case, questions remain develop. The space of blocked geostrophic contours around the effects of geometric variations. The relation- emerges through the presence of ‘‘landmasses,’’ cre- ship between ridge height and volume transport has been ating an area where Sverdrup balance dominates and investigated in a nonlinear setting by Nadeau and Ferrari classical gyres form as a result (LaCasce and Isachsen (2015) but changes in ridge height affect the level of 2010). As ridge height increases, the topography acts blocked f/H. A nonlinear dynamical understanding of the to block geostrophic contours and zonal volume effects of ridge geometry in a region of unblocked geo- transport reduces in strength (Krupitsky and Cane strophic contours is currently missing from the literature. 1994; Wang and Huang 1995; Nadeau and Ferrari Not only is ridge topography important in determin- 2015). This binary view of the Southern Ocean is only ing the ACC volume transport but it is also crucial to directly applicable to a linear barotropic setting and Southern Ocean gyre formation. With the prevailing we emphasize that many other factors add complexity theory of potential vorticity, poleward ACC flow to this simple theory. Much of the ACC, governed by should dominate the eastern flanks of ridges in the an ‘‘almost free mode,’’ drifts into regions of globally Southern Ocean, but this is not uniformly the case. blocked geostrophic contours (Hughes et al. 1999). Figure 1 shows that particular locations east of ridge Nevertheless, the simple view that net zonal volume topography are dominated by gyre circulations. In transport is dependent on the level of blocked f/H is a classical gyre theory, western boundary currents are useful construct for this barotropic study. supported by the intersection of geostrophic contours Linear studies show that the net zonal volume trans- with continental boundaries, which lead to the forma- port in a channel is also dependent on ridge width tion of gyres (see Patmore 2018). Departing from this (Johnson and Hill 1975; Krupitsky and Cane 1994; Wang theory, circulations such as the Ross Gyre occur in the and Huang 1995). Varying topography in this way does absence of continental boundaries. Instead, these gyres not affect the level of blocked f/H and it isolates the form in the lee of large meridional, submarine topo- dependence on the ridge geometry itself. These exist- graphic features where geostrophic contours are lo- ing studies investigate the linear dynamics in two set- cally unblocked. Modeling results have been presented tings, one where all geostrophic contours are blocked where gyres form without the need for a western (Krupitsky and Cane 1994; Wang and Huang 1995)and boundary (Krupitsky and Cane 1994; Wang and Huang one where there is only partial blocking of geostrophic 1995; Munday et al.