NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2016 NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2016 International Atomic Energy Agenc www.iaea.org International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre, P.O. Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria Telephone: (+43-1) 2600-0 Fax: (+43-1) 2600-7 y Email: [email protected] Cover photo credits, from top left: (1) IAEA; (2) Petra Schnitter; (3) Chanqijang power plant, CNNC; (4) IAEA; (5) IAEA; (6) IAEA; (7) Onkalo, Posiva. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2016 The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency: AFGHANISTAN GEORGIA OMAN ALBANIA GERMANY PAKISTAN ALGERIA GHANA PALAU ANGOLA GREECE PANAMA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA GUATEMALA PAPUA NEW GUINEA ARGENTINA GUYANA PARAGUAY ARMENIA HAITI PERU AUSTRALIA HOLY SEE PHILIPPINES AUSTRIA HONDURAS POLAND AZERBAIJAN HUNGARY PORTUGAL BAHAMAS ICELAND QATAR BAHRAIN INDIA REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA BANGLADESH INDONESIA ROMANIA BARBADOS IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF RUSSIAN FEDERATION BELARUS IRAQ RWANDA BELGIUM IRELAND SAN MARINO BELIZE ISRAEL SAUDI ARABIA BENIN ITALY SENEGAL BOLIVIA, PLURINATIONAL JAMAICA SERBIA STATE OF JAPAN SEYCHELLES BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JORDAN SIERRA LEONE BOTSWANA KAZAKHSTAN SINGAPORE BRAZIL KENYA SLOVAKIA BRUNEI DARUSSALAM KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA BULGARIA KUWAIT SOUTH AFRICA BURKINA FASO KYRGYZSTAN SPAIN BURUNDI LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC SRI LANKA CAMBODIA REPUBLIC SUDAN CAMEROON LATVIA SWAZILAND CANADA LEBANON SWEDEN CENTRAL AFRICAN LESOTHO SWITZERLAND REPUBLIC LIBERIA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC CHAD LIBYA TAJIKISTAN CHILE LIECHTENSTEIN THAILAND CHINA LITHUANIA THE FORMER YUGOSLAV COLOMBIA LUXEMBOURG REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA CONGO MADAGASCAR TOGO COSTA RICA MALAWI TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO CÔTE D’IVOIRE MALAYSIA TUNISIA CROATIA MALI TURKEY CUBA MALTA TURKMENISTAN CYPRUS MARSHALL ISLANDS UGANDA CZECH REPUBLIC MAURITANIA UKRAINE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MAURITIUS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES OF THE CONGO MEXICO UNITED KINGDOM OF DENMARK MONACO GREAT BRITAIN AND DJIBOUTI MONGOLIA NORTHERN IRELAND DOMINICA MONTENEGRO UNITED REPUBLIC DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MOROCCO OF TANZANIA ECUADOR MOZAMBIQUE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA EGYPT MYANMAR URUGUAY EL SALVADOR NAMIBIA UZBEKISTAN ERITREA NEPAL VANUATU ESTONIA NETHERLANDS VENEZUELA, BOLIVARIAN ETHIOPIA NEW ZEALAND REPUBLIC OF FIJI NICARAGUA VIET NAM FINLAND NIGER YEMEN FRANCE NIGERIA ZAMBIA GABON NORWAY ZIMBABWE The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 2016 INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 2016 COPYRIGHT NOTICE All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised in 1972 (Paris). The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual property. Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty agreements. Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are welcomed and considered on a case-by-case basis. Enquiries should be addressed to the IAEA Publishing Section at: Marketing and Sales Unit, Publishing Section International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel.: +43 1 2600 22417 email: [email protected] http://www.iaea.org/books © IAEA, 2016 Printed by the IAEA in Austria August 2016 IAEA/NTR/2016 EDITORIAL NOTE This report does not address questions of responsibility, legal or otherwise, for acts or omissions on the part of any person. Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained in this publication, neither the IAEA nor its Member States assume any responsibility for consequences which may arise from its use. The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA. The IAEA has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third party Internet web sites referred to in this book and does not guarantee that any content on such web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................... 1 A. POWER APPLICATIONS ................................. 7 A.1. Nuclear power today .................................. 7 A.1.1. Expanding countries .......................... 14 A.1.2. Operating countries ........................... 14 A.2. The projected growth of nuclear power ................... 15 A.3. Fuel cycle .......................................... 17 A.3.1. Front end ................................... 17 A.3.2. Fuel fabrication .............................. 19 A.3.3. Assurance of supply ........................... 21 A.3.4. Back end. 21 A.3.5. Decommissioning, environmental remediation and radioactive waste management . 23 A.4. Safety ............................................. 29 References to Section A ................................... 31 B. ADVANCED FISSION AND FUSION ....................... 33 B.1. Advanced fission .................................... 33 B.1.1. Water cooled reactors .......................... 33 B.1.2. Fast neutron systems .......................... 34 B.1.3. Gas cooled reactors ........................... 36 B.1.4. Small and medium sized or modular reactors ....... 37 B.1.5. International initiatives on innovative nuclear energy systems ............................... 39 B.1.6. Non-electric applications of nuclear power ......... 41 B.2. Fusion ............................................ 42 References to Section B ................................... 46 C. ACCELERATOR AND RESEARCH REACTOR APPLICATIONS . 47 C.1. Accelerators ........................................ 47 C.1.1. High power proton accelerators .................. 47 C.1.2. Ion beam techniques roadmap ................... 48 C.1.3. X ray techniques for materials characterization and imaging ................................. 49 C.1.4. Combined ion and neutron beam techniques for trace element and molecular fingerprinting ............. 50 C.2. Research reactors . 51 References to Section C ................................... 55 D. EMERGING INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION TECHNOLOGIES ....................................... 56 D.1. Radiation technologies in industry and engineering ......... 56 D.1.1. Thin layer activation for measuring wear, erosion and corrosion of materials ...................... 56 D.1.2. Radiation technologies for investigating sediment transport .................................... 57 D.2. Radiation technologies for the development of ‘green’ products and processes ............................... 58 D.2.1. Nanoscale radiation engineered materials .......... 58 D.2.2. Radiation curing ............................. 60 References to Section D ................................... 61 E. ADVANCES IN MEDICAL IMAGING TECHNOLOGY ......... 62 E.1. Recent advances in imaging technology for the assessment of body composition .................................... 62 E.1.1. Body composition as a health indicator ............ 62 E.1.2. Advances in dual energy X ray absorptiometry ...... 63 E.1.3. Advances in quantitative computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging .................... 66 E.1.4. Emerging technologies: Two and three dimensional whole body surface scanning .................... 67 References to Section E ................................... 68 F. THE INTEGRATED USE OF RADIATION, GENETIC AND SYMBIONT BASED METHODS TO MANAGE MOSQUITO DISEASE VECTORS ..................................... 71 F.1. Mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases ................. 71 F.2. The sterile insect technique as a tool to control mosquito populations ......................................... 72 F.2.1. Developing the sterile insect technique for use against mosquitoes ............................ 72 F.2.2. Further technological requirements ............... 74 F.3. Complementary methods and their integration with the sterile insect technique to control mosquito populations ........... 75 F.3.1. Complementary genetic approaches to mosquito control ..................................... 75 F.3.2. Symbiont based approaches ..................... 76 F.3.3. Further requirements for the successful application of genetic control methods ........................ 76 References to Section F .................................... 77 G. ISOTOPIC TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES ............................ 80 G.1. Combined use of fallout radionuclides and compound specific stable isotope techniques for effective soil conservation measures .......................................... 80 G.1.1. Fallout radionuclides for quantifying rates of erosion and sedimentation ............................ 80 G.1.2. Compound specific stable isotope techniques