University of Nevada, Reno “One would think Satan has invaded the place”1: Toxifying Language and the Genocidal Process in Rwanda A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Political Science By Holly Marie Scala Dr. Robert Ostergard/Thesis Advisor May, 2020 1 This quote is taken from an April 2, 1994 RTLM transcript. Copyright by Holly Marie Scala 2020 All Rights Reserved i Abstract This thesis seeks to specify empirical differences between two types of rhetoric thought to contribute to the onset of genocide: dehumanization and toxification. It utilizes radio transcripts from the Rwandan Genocide to test two propositions: that toxification and dehumanization are empirically distinguishable, and that toxification contributes to the onset and/or intensification of killings in a genocidal context. Results indicate that there are empirically demonstrable differences between dehumanization and toxification, but toxification does not contribute to the onset or intensification of genocide. Instead, the Rwandan case indicates toxification may be utilized as an attempt to motivate latent perpetrators to participate and justify the actions of those already participating in the genocide, as well as to attempt to maintain power in the face of perceived loss. This thesis contributes to the literature on dehumanization and the uses of language in genocide. ii Dedication For the victims of the Rwandan Genocide, known and unknown. I will persist in shedding light upon the tragedies that unfolded in Rwanda and elsewhere, and I will implore those around me to learn about genocide and mass atrocity. Your suffering shall not be in vain. iii Acknowledgements I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the individuals and institutions who helped me complete this project. These include my committee chair and advisor, Dr. Robert Ostergard, who was extremely helpful and patient with me during this process, and the other members of my committee, Dr. Ian Hartshorn, who was vital in the early stages of developing a topic and question, Dr. Amy Pason, and Dr. Leah Windsor, my external committee members who provided me with ample support and feedback. I am also grateful for the Director of Graduate Studies in the Political Science department, Dr. Xiaoyu Pu, the rest of the Political Science department staff and faculty, and the members of my cohort, who were always curious about and supportive of this project. Thank you to Michael Graf and Augustin Mutemberezi. Michael connected me with Augustin Mutemberezi, who generously translated my Kinyarwanda results. I am also indebted to Dr. Steven Wilson, who speedily converted my thousands of pages of transcripts into text files, Dr. Matthew Krain, who provided me with thoughtful feedback and encouragement at the International Studies Association, West Conference, and to the Genocide Archive of Rwanda, the Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies, and the University of Texas at Austin for making RTLM transcripts available for use. Thank you to Max for supporting me throughout the entire process. I could not have completed this without your love and encouragement. iv Table of Contents Toxifying Language and the Genocidal Process in Rwanda .......................................... 1 Existing Genocide Literature ....................................................................................... 2 Defining Genocide ..............................................................................................................2 Predictors and Early Warnings ............................................................................................3 Ideology and Language ..................................................................................................... 15 Dehumanization and the Social Psychology of Perpetrators ............................................................... 19 A Call for Further Specification: Toxification ........................................................................................ 23 Toxification Merits Further Research ................................................................................................... 26 Research Design ....................................................................................................... 27 Data and Analysis Methodology ....................................................................................... 28 Case Selection: Rwanda 1994............................................................................................ 29 Why Rwanda? ....................................................................................................................................... 29 Background on Rwanda: A History of Discrimination ........................................................................... 32 Continued Discrimination, Armed Conflict, and Destabilization .......................................................... 32 Early Triggering Factors......................................................................................................................... 33 Instability and Exclusionary Ideology .................................................................................................... 36 Final Triggering Incident and Openings in Political Opportunity Structures ........................................ 37 Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 38 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 40 Results of Linguistic Analysis of RTLM Transcripts...................................................... 45 Assigning Topic Names to Latent Topic Models ................................................................. 48 English Topic Models ........................................................................................................ 49 Urgent Threat Construction .................................................................................................................. 49 Tutsis as Oppressors ............................................................................................................................. 49 Political Communication ....................................................................................................................... 50 Instillation of Fear ................................................................................................................................. 50 Equation of Enemy with Tutsi Identity ................................................................................................. 51 Toxic to Ideal ......................................................................................................................................... 52 Toxic to Self ........................................................................................................................................... 53 Critique of Government Institutions ..................................................................................................... 54 Virtueltalk as Legitimation .................................................................................................................... 54 Construction of a Dangerous and Ubiquitous Enemy .......................................................................... 55 Kinyarwanda Topic Models ............................................................................................... 55 English Transcript Results ................................................................................................. 61 Dehumanizing and Toxifying Language ................................................................................................ 61 Power Language .................................................................................................................................... 66 Anger Language .................................................................................................................................... 68 v Causal Language .................................................................................................................................... 70 Urgent Threat Construction .................................................................................................................. 72 Tutsis as Oppressors ............................................................................................................................. 73 Instillation of Fear ................................................................................................................................. 75 Equation of Enemy with Tutsi Identity ................................................................................................. 76 Toxic to Ideal ......................................................................................................................................... 78 Toxic to Self ........................................................................................................................................... 80 Critique of Government Institutions ..................................................................................................... 82 Virtueltalk as Legitimation .................................................................................................................... 84 Construction of Dangerous and Ubiquitous Enemy ............................................................................