FOOD PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY Edited by RICHARD COLES Consultant in Food Packaging, London DEREK MCDOWELL Head of Supply and Packaging Division Loughry College, Northern Ireland and MARK J. KIRWAN Consultant in Packaging Technology London Blackwell Publishing © 2003 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered Editorial Offices: trademarks, and are used only for identification 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ and explanation, without intent to infringe. Tel: +44 (0) 1865 776868 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK First published 2003 Tel: +44 (0) 1865 791100 Blackwell Munksgaard, 1 Rosenørns Allè, Library of Congress Cataloging in P.O. 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Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Contributors Helen Brown Biochemistry Section Manager, Campden & Chorley- wood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK Richard Coles Consultant in Food Packaging, Packaging Consultancy and Training, 20 Albert Reed Gardens, Tovil, Maid- stone, Kent ME15 6JY, UK Brian P.F. Day Research Section Leader, Food Packaging & Coatings, Food Science Australia, 671 Sneydes Road (Private Bag 16), Werribee, Victoria 3030, Australia Mike Edwards Microscopy Section Manager, Chemistry & Biochem- istry Department, Campden & Chorleywood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden, Glouces- tershire, GL55 6LD, UK Patrick J. Girling Consultant in Glass Packaging, Doncaster, UK (for- merly with Rockware Glass) Bruce Harte Director, Michigan State University, School of Pack- aging, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824-1223, USA Mark J. Kirwan Consultant in Packaging Technology, London, UK (formerly with Iggesund Paperboard) Nick May Senior Research Officer, Process and Product Devel- opment Department, Campden & Chorleywood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden, Glouces- tershire, GL55 6LD, UK Derek McDowell Head of Supply and Packaging Division, Loughry College, The Food Centre, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone, BT80 9AA, Northern Ireland Michael Mullan Head of Food Education and Training Division, Loughry College, The Food Centre, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone, BT80 9AA and Department of Food Science, The Queen’s University of Belfast, Newforge Lane, Belfast, BT9 5PX, Northern Ireland xvi CONTRIBUTORS Bev Page Packaging Consultant, Oak Shade, 121 Nottingham Road, Ravenshead, Nottingham NG15 9HJ, UK John W. Strawbridge Consultant in Plastics Packaging, Welwyn, UK (for- merly with Exxon-Mobil) Gary S. Tucker Process Development Section Leader, Department of Process and Product Development, Campden & Chorleywood Food Research, Association Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK Diana Twede Associate Professor, Michigan State University, School of Packaging, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824-1223, USA James Williams Flavour Research and Taint Investigations Manager, Campden & Chorleywood Food Research Associ- ation, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK Preface This volume informs the reader about food preservation processes and techniques, product quality and shelf life, and the logistical packaging, packaging materials, machinery and processes, necessary for a wide range of packaging presentations. It is essential that those involved in food packaging innovation have a thor- ough technical understanding of the requirements of a product for protection and preservation, together with a broad appreciation of the multi-dimensional role of packaging. Business objectives may be: • the launch of new products or the re-launch of existing products • the provision of added value to existing products or services • cost reduction in the supply chain. This book sets out to assist in the attainment of these objectives by informing designers, technologists and others in the packaging chain about key food packaging technologies and processes. To achieve this, the following five principal subject areas are covered: 1. food packaging strategy, design and development (chapter 1) 2. food bio-deterioration and methods of preservation (chapter 2) 3. packaged product quality and shelf life (chapter 3) 4. logistical packaging for food marketing systems (chapter 4) 5. packaging materials and processes (chapters 5–10). Chapter 1 introduces the subject of food packaging and its design and develop- ment. Food packaging is an important source of competitive advantage for retailers and product manufacturers. Chapter 2 discusses bio-deterioration and methods of food preservation that are fundamental to conserving the integrity of a product and protecting the health of the consumer. Chapter 3 discussess packaged product quality and shelf life issues that are the main concerns for product stability and consumer acceptability. Chapter 4 discusses logistical packaging for food marketing systems – it considers supply chain efficiency, distribution hazards, opportunities for cost reduction and added value, com- munication, pack protection and performance evaluation. Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 consider metal cans, glass, plastics and paper and paperboard, respectively. Chapters 9 and 10 discuss active packaging and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) respectively – these techniques are used to extend the shelf life and/or guarantee quality attributes such as nutritional content, taste and the colour of many types of fresh, processed and prepared foods. xviii PREFACE The editors are grateful for the support of authors who are close to the latest developments in their technologies, and for their efforts in making this know- ledge available. We also wish to extend a word of gratitude to others who have contributed to this endeavour: Andy Hartley, Marketing Manager, and Sharon Crayton, Prod- uct Manager of Rockware Glass, UK; Nick Starke, formerly Head of Research & Development, Nampak, South Africa; Frank Paine, Adjunct Professor, School of Packaging, Michigan State University; and Susan Campbell. Richard Coles Derek McDowell Mark Kirwan Contents Contributors xv Preface xvii 1 Introduction 1 RICHARD COLES 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Packaging developments – an historical perspective 2 1.3 Food supply and the protective role of packaging 4 1.4 The value of packaging to society 7 1.5 Definitions and basic functions of packaging 8 1.6 Packaging strategy 9 1.7 Packaging design and development 9 1.7.1 The packaging design and development framework 12 1.7.1.1 Product needs 13 1.7.1.2 Distribution needs and wants of packaging 13 1.7.1.3 Packaging materials, machinery and production processes 16 1.7.1.4 Consumer needs and wants of packaging 18 1.7.1.5 Multiple food retail market needs and wants 22 1.7.1.6 Environmental performance of packaging 26 1.7.2 Packaging specifications and standards 28 1.8 Conclusion 29 Literature reviewed and sources of information 29 2 Food biodeterioration and methods of preservation 32 GARY S. TUCKER 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 Agents of food biodeterioration 33 2.2.1 Enzymes 33 2.2.2 Microorganisms 34 2.2.2.1 Bacteria 35 2.2.2.2 Fungi 38 2.2.3 Non-enzymic biodeterioration 40 2.3 Food preservation methods 41 2.3.1 High temperature 41 2.3.1.1 Blanching 42 2.3.1.2 Thermal processing 42 2.3.1.3 Continuous thermal processing (aseptic) 47 2.3.1.4 Pasteurisation 51 2.3.2 Low temperature 52 2.3.2.1 Freezing 52 2.3.2.2 Chilling and cooling 53 vi CONTENTS 2.3.3 Drying and water activity control 54 2.3.4 Chemical preservation 56 2.3.4.1 Curing 57 2.3.4.2 Pickling 58 2.3.4.3 Smoking 58 2.3.5 Fermentation 59 2.3.6 Modifying the atmosphere 60 2.3.7 Other techniques and developments 61 2.3.7.1 High pressure processing 61 2.3.7.2 Ohmic heating 62 2.3.7.3 Irradiation 62 2.3.7.4 Membrane processing 62 2.3.7.5 Microwave processing 63 References 63 3 Packaged product quality and shelf life 65 HELEN BROWN and JAMES WILLIAMS 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Factors affecting