Making TV Sound: A History of Television Sound Operation from 1970-2010 Tim Heath 100808360 Submitted to Royal Holloway, University of London for the degree of Doctor of Phi- losophy in Media Arts, September 2017. !1 Abstract This thesis investigates the the changing practices, technologies, and cultures of sound opera- tors working in Britain’s television industry from 1970 - 2010. Television production in Britain changed fundamentally throughout this period as a result of industrial reorganisation and significant technological change. During this time, operational sound personnel have ex- perienced significant disruption to the practices, cultures, and communities that make up their daily working lives. Focussing particular attention on the reorganisation of the 1980s and 1990s, this re- search contributes an understanding of, how these industrial, technological, and cultural shifts took form within the work of television sound personnel and how this group has adapted and reorganised as a result. This thesis aims to show that the working lives and experiences of television sound operators are now significantly different from those employed before this period of industrial and technological transformation. It will be argued that not only are tech- nologies and working practices of sound operation now considerably different, but so too are the ways in which members of this community interpret and portray their work, identity, and skills. In order to achieve this the experiences of this group of professionals shall be discussed through analysis of topics such as training, innovation, working practices, production hierar- chies, and professional identity. At a time when television sound is frequently being criticised by the press and wider public, this thesis aims to explore the practices and cultures of a group of professionals whose work remains under researched and misunderstood by many. !2 Acknowledgements I would like to thank: My supervisors, Prof. John Ellis and Dr Nick Hall for offering me the opportunity to under- take this project and for their continued support, guidance, and encouragement throughout. The many contributors who took the time to be interviewed, provided photos and documents, and welcomed me into their places of work in order to share their expertise. Without the help of these individuals this project would not have been possible. I particularly would like to thank Douglas Macintosh of SQN and his wife Hadda for hosting me on the Isle of Man as well as Simon Davies of Rycote and Mark Crabtree of AMS-Neve for allowing me access to their industry leading businesses. My colleagues on the Adapt Project and fellow students within the Media Arts department at Royal Holloway. My friends and family for their support and, most of all, Kirsty for her patience and under- standing throughout the last 3 years. This thesis was enabled by funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 323626). !3 Contents Declaration of Authorship………………………………………………………………………1 Abstract……………………………………………..……………………………………..……2 Acknowledgements…………………………..…………………………………………………3 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..…6 Thesis Outline……………………………………………………………………………….9 1. Literature Review………………………………………………………………………….. 12 Sound in Film and Television.……………………………………………………………. 14 Wider Production Studies………………………………………………………………… 27 Social Histories of Technology…………………………………………………………… 39 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………… 49 Oral History Interviews……………………………………………………………………54 Ethical Concerns………………………………………………………………………….. 59 2. Who, What, How?…………………………………………………………………………..61 Identifying Television’s Sound Operators in the Era of Vertical Integration………………64 Post-Production…………………………………………………………………………… 95 3. Training……………………………………………………………………………………. 107 The Era of In-House Training…………………………………………………………….. 110 From The BBC to University - Training Sound Personnel in the Digital era…………….. 120 4. Innovation………………………………………………………………………………….. 139 Technological Frameworks in the Era of Vertically Integrated Broadcasters……………..142 Advertising…………………………………………………………………………………154 Patenting………………………………………………………………………………….. 157 The Role of End Users in the Era of Vertical Integration………………………………… 162 Open Innovation in Freelance Television Production……………………………………..170 Manufacturer-User Relations in the “New Media Revolution”……………………………181 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………188 5. Tinkering……………………………………………………………………………………190 Technologies and Craft Production Roles…………………………………………………193 Tinkering in the Analogue Era……………………………………………………………. 197 !4 Tinkering with Digital Tools…………………………………………………………… …204 6. Hierarchies………………………………………………………………………………… 215 Hierarchies in the Era of Vertically Integrated Broadcasters…………………………….. 220 Technological change in Production Sound……………………………………………… 227 Industrial shifts in UK Television………………………………………………………… 235 Sound in the New Production Environment……………………………………………… 237 Precarious Employment and Plummeting Pay…………………………………………… 243 7. Creativity………………………………………………………………………………….. 253 Technological developments in Post-Production Sound…………………………………. 262 The Tribal World of Digital Post-Production ……………………………………………. 276 Artist or Salesperson - Investigating notions of creativity……………………………….. 281 8. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………… 289 Areas for future research ………………………………………………………………… 296 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………….. 299 !5 Introduction This thesis is concerned with the changing practices, technologies, and cultures of sound op- erators working in Britain’s television industry during a time of fundamental change. The main aim of this research is to analyse the effects of industrial and technological reform on the individuals specifically employed to record, edit, and mix the soundtrack of British televi- sion. In doing so, this thesis intends to show that the working lives and experiences of televi- sion sound operators are now significantly different from those employed before this period of industrial and technological transformation. It will be argued that not only are technologies and working practices of sound operation now considerably different, but so too are the ways in which members of this community interpret and portray their work, identity, and skills. The television industry in Britain has seen substantial and far reaching reform through- out the latter decades of the twentieth century. Beginning in the 1980s, this industry has reor- ganised and fragmented under the pressures of government policy and wider economic re- modelling. As with many industries throughout this period, television has moved, almost uni- versally, away from vertically integrated institutions to become reliant on the commissioning and outsourcing of numerous processes. Utilising this new model, broadcasters have dis- tanced themselves from production and now rely on a substantial supply of smaller compan- ies to produce and supply programmes. For those working in production, the employment environment is now fundamentally different. Traditionally, working in television production consisted of full time, and often life long, employment within a vertically integrated broad- caster, such as the BBC and ITV franchises. These institutions not only provided their em- ployees with security, but also supplied a clear career path, a recognised management struc- ture, and an entrenched set of practices and working cultures. However, as broadcasters have transitioned to become primarily commissioners of productions, they have disbanded their significant production workforces. As a result, the employment landscape is now character- ised by freelance project based work governed by casual networks and personal reputation. In contrast to the fixed stream of work within vertically integrated broadcasters, careers are now !6 made up of fragmented and irregular projects with no guarantee of repeat employment. For those working in production, insecurity and competition are now inherent aspects of working life. Coinciding with the reorganisation of industry, the development of new production equipment has resulted in digital technologies being adopted wholesale into the tools of tele- vision production. For those working in technical roles, the affordances, design, and ubiquity of such technologies have acted to intensify the effects of structural reorganisation in an in- creasingly cost conscious and hierarchical industry. Digital technologies provide a host of new affordances and allow for practices that would not have been viable, or even achievable, using analogue equipment. Furthermore, the user friendly nature of such technology allows for effective operation with fewer resources and at a considerably reduced cost. As a result, it is now commonplace for an individual operator to complete work that would have tradition- ally required a small team of skilled operators. In an industry that is now more competitive than ever, producers have often viewed digital technologies as a means to cut costs, rather than extend professional practices. As a result of these shifts, the experiences of individuals working in television produc- tion are now fundamentally different from those of personnel employed within a vertically integrated broadcaster. However, analysis of how these changes have affected those working in below-the-line positions, such as sound operators, camera operators, and lighting techni- cians, remain few