1 JAPANESE SOULS AND BRAZILIAN HEARTS: AN EXPLORATION OF THE ETHNIC IDENTITIES AND MENTAL WELLBEING OF JAPANESE BRAZILIAN RETURN-RETURN MIGRANTS A dissertation presented by Tainah Michida to The Department of Sociology and Anthropology In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Sociology Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts July 2016 2 JAPANESE SOULS AND BRAZILIAN HEARTS: AN EXPLORATION OF THE ETHNIC IDENTITIES AND MENTAL WELLBEING OF JAPANESE BRAZILIAN RETURN-RETURN MIGRANTS A dissertation presented by Tainah Michida ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology in the College of Social Sciences and Humanities of Northeastern University July, 2016 3 Abstract Studies of immigration, identity, and culture have recently focused on examinations of transnationalism and transnational ties. Among these, explorations of “return” migration (i.e., a migration movement to one‟s ethnic homeland) are of particular importance due to its potential effects on self-concept and mental wellbeing. Though a literature is emerging, the effects of return migration are understudied and populations of “return-return” migrants (persons who migrated to their ancestral homeland and subsequently returned to their country of origin) are virtually unexplored. This dissertation begins to fill a gap in our knowledge of return-return migration by examining Japanese Brazilian returnees‟ migratory experiences and how they are associated with identity and mental wellbeing. More specifically, this dissertation explores how Japanese Brazilian return-return migrants negotiate their ethnic identities in different social contexts and stages of migration. It also examines how sociocultural and environmental factors and identity formation processes affect their mental wellbeing. To understand these issues, I conducted in-depth interviews with 38 Japanese Brazilian return-return migrants in the metropolitan region of São Paulo – home to the largest concentration of Japanese descendants outside of Japan. Findings suggest that most participants held a Japanese ethnic identity pre- migration. This identity was motivated and supported by familial socialization, involvement in ethnic activities, and ascribed positive minority status. In Japan, most participants failed to find their expected homeland and experienced disappointment, prejudice, and pressure to assimilate. In response, most developed a Brazilian counter- 4 identity, which allowed for greater psychological distance between themselves and the native Japanese. Upon return to Brazil, findings suggest that a new hybrid identity (coined the Descendente identity) emerged in response to sociocultural push and pull factors, and as the result of an accumulation of synergistic migration and identity factors. Japanese Brazilian return-return migrants encountered many common migration stressors (e.g., loneliness and isolation, linguistic challenges) in Japan; however, they also experienced stressors that are directly related to their social identity as descendants and Brazilian nationals (e.g., prejudice associated with their families‟ migration history, Brazil‟s “Third World” status, and perceived cultural inadequacy). Depression, sadness, and loneliness were among the main expressions of emotional distress cited. Post-return migration, some participants experienced elevated levels of self- esteem associated with their return to positive minority status in Brazil; however, most were adversely affected by processes of social comparison and appraisal and perceptions of the environment (e.g., lack of safety and organization). Findings suggest that these may be the product of an interaction between migration and identity factors and internalized anti-Brazilian prejudice. Participants expressed emotional distress (i.e., fear, low self-esteem) in response to the unique resettlement challenges they experienced. By addressing the identity negotiation processes and mental wellbeing of Japanese Brazilian return-return migrants, this dissertation begins to pave the way toward a greater understanding of the final third of their migration journey. In doing so, it makes significant contributions to the immigration, identity, race and ethnicity, and mental health literatures, and contributes to a general understanding of return and return-return migrant populations beyond Japanese Brazilians. 5 Acknowledgments This study would not have been completed without the patient and supportive guidance of my committee: Professors Alisa Lincoln, Matthew Hunt, Alan Klein, and Takeyuki Tsuda. I am thankful to each of them for their comments, suggestions, and words of support during the research and writing processes. I would like to thank Prof. Lincoln, in particular, for the encouragement that motivated me to stay on track and to complete my doctoral student career successfully. Thank you, as well, to the diligent staff of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology for their prompt assistance and patient answers to many administrative questions. To my wonderful family, I will never be able to express how grateful I am for your support and encouragement throughout these years. Thank you for instilling in me a love for learning that has ultimately led to this project, and thank you for constantly motivating me to conquer whatever challenges I encounter along the way. Without you by my side, this would not have been possible. Finally, I am profoundly grateful to the men and women who took a few hours of their time to share their lives with a stranger. I thank them for trusting me with knowledge of some of their most vulnerable experiences as well as for motivating me with their remarkable inner strength. Their messages of hope and resilience will continue to inspire me for years to come. 6 Table of Contents Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………. 2 Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………. 5 Chapter One: Introduction .…………………………………………………………….12 Guiding Research Questions ……………………………………………………14 Significance……………………………………………………………………... 15 Organization of the Dissertation………………………………………………... 19 Chapter Two: Review of the Literature……………………………………………….. 22 “Return” Migration, Ethnicity and Identity…………………………………….. 22 The Fluidity of Racial and Ethnic Identification in Brazilian Society………….. 26 Social Determinants of Racial Classification in Brazil…….…………… 32 Japanese Brazilians in Brazil…………………………………………………… 34 Positive Minority Status………………………………………………... 36 The Ethnic Identity of Japanese Brazilians in Brazil...………………… 38 Prejudice and Discrimination in Brazil………………………………… 40 Japanese Brazilians in Japan…………………………………………………… 41 Expectations of a Dream Return to the Homeland……………………... 43 The Ethnic Identity of Japanese Brazilians in Japan…………………… 48 Prejudice and Discrimination in Japan…………………………………. 53 Mental Health, Stress, and Identity Theory…………………………………….. 55 7 Immigration and Mental Health………………………………………………… 59 The Mental Wellbeing of Return Migrants……………………………... 65 The Mental Wellbeing of Return-Return Migrants…………………….. 67 The Mental Wellbeing of Japanese Brazilians………………………….. 68 Chapter Three: Methodology…………………………………………………………. 75 Data Collection…………………………………………………………………. 75 Research Setting………………………………………………………… 75 Sample Description……………………………………………………... 77 Recruitment……………………………………………………………... 79 Semi-Structured In-Depth Interviews…………………………………... 81 Questionnaire ……………………………………………………………83 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………… 84 The Role of the Researcher……………………………………………………... 86 Chapter Four: The Ethnic Identities of Japanese Brazilians in Brazil and Japan…….. 89 Introduction……………………………………………………………………... 89 I Identified as Japanese in Brazil……………………………………………….. 90 Fortunately, I was Japanese in Brazil before Going to Japan…………... 91 Unfortunately, I was Japanese before Going to Japan………………….. 92 I Identified as Brazilian in Japan……………………………………………….. 94 I Experienced Discrimination Because of My Brazilian Nationality…... 96 I Experienced Discrimination Because I Am a Japanese Descendant… 102 8 The Body Speaks: Perceptions of Cultural Difference………………... 105 I Said “Onaji,” They Said “Isshou”: Perceptions of Cultural Difference……………………………………………………………... 109 Assimilationist Tendencies and a Mixed Ethnic Identity……………... 117 Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………………………. 120 Chapter Five: The Ethnic Identities of Japanese Brazilians Post-Return Migration... 128 Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 128 From Japanese Brazilian to “Right in the Middle”…………………………… 130 Elements of a Japanese Identity……………………………………….. 131 Elements of a Brazilian Identity………………………………………. 135 Proud to be Japanese Brazilian………………………………………... 137 The Push and Pull of Being Brazilian……………………………………….… 140 Brazilian Push Factors………………………………………………… 141 Brazilian Pull Factors………………………………………………….. 146 The Push and Pull of Being Japanese…………………………………………. 152 Japanese Push Factors…………………………………………………. 153 Japanese Pull Factors………………………………………………….. 156 I Don‟t Have a Country………………………………………………………... 159 Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………………………. 162 Chapter Six: The Mental Wellbeing of Japanese Brazilians…………………………. 169 Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 169 9 The Decision to Migrate………………………………………………………. 173 Migration: Unfulfilled Hopes of an Ethnic Homecoming…………………….. 177 Migration Stressors and Strains……………………………………………….. 180 Linguistic Barriers…………………………………………………….. 181 Loss of Networks of Social Support…………………………………..