DigitalResources SIL eBook 49 ® Cognition and Learning: A Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities Patricia M. Davis Cognition and Learning A Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities Patricia M. Davis SIL International® 2014 1 2 SIL e-Books 49 2014 SIL International® ISBN: 978-1-55671-354-5 ISSN: 1934-2470 Fair-Use Policy: Books published in the SIL e-Books (SILEB) series are intended for scholarly research and educational use. You may make copies of these publications for research or instructional purposes free of charge (within fair-use guidelines) and without further permission. Republication or commercial use of SILEB or the documents contained therein is expressly prohibited without the written consent of the copyright holder(s). Editor-in-Chief Mike Cahill Volume Editor Mary Ruth Wise Managing Editor Bonnie Brown Compositor Margaret González Contents Preface Acknowledgments Introduction: An Overview of Learning Theories Some definitions Important learning theories of the twentieth century Disclaimers Value of this study Chapter 1 Developmental Theories Introduction Genetic programming Piagetian theory Piaget’s stages of human development The concrete operational stage The formal operations stage Applications in Western society Applications in ethnolinguistic minority groups Successive equilibration Educational implications Application Chapter 2 Behaviorist Theory Important themes Educational usefulness Reaction Application Chapter 3 Information Processing Theories Introduction Fundamental ideas Reception Learning – David P. Ausubel The importance of meaningful learning Advance organizers The lesson: information storage and retrieval Help for educators Application Schema Theory – Richard C. Anderson The concept of schema Important implications Application Information Processing – Robert Gagné Gagné’s series of internal processes The knowledge hierarchy iii iv Importance of the hierarchical concept Learning categories Designing instruction to enhance learning Application Social Learning Theory – Albert Bandura The theory in a nutshell The pervasive influence of modeling Types of models Effective modeling Reinforcement Self-evaluation and choice of friends Disengagement from blame Mechanisms involving cognitive restructuring Mechanisms which obscure or distort the relationship between actions and their effects Mechanisms which dehumanize the victim Mechanisms which displace responsibility Tips for teachers Application Chapter 4 Learning Styles and Teaching Methods Introduction A word about terms Development of the field Reliable testing Witkin’s definition of cognitive styles Salient characteristics Psychological differentiation Societal variance Group characteristics Molding influences Capacity for development Learning styles and educability I.Q. Tests Scholastic discrimination Domains of learning affected Social material Reinforcement Organization Concept attainment Cue salience Adult/child role expectations Additional learning styles Hemispheric dominance In the Classroom Student characteristics v An example from a holistic classroom Holistic instructional techniques Field Independent/Field Sensitive teaching and learning strategies Holistic lesson plans Teacher training Curriculum organization and evaluation Bicognitive development Further developments Cautions Application Chapter 5 Social Constructivist Theory Introduction Core concepts The thrust of the argument Inner speech Limitation The zone of proximal development Implications Application Appendix A: Example of an Advance Organizer The concept of Era Background Preexisting cognitive structure Advance Organizer: Behavioral objective The Advance Organizer (comparative type) The Advance Organizer as a concept Content of the lesson Analysis Conclusion Appendix B: Additional Resources References Preface This volume is a review of the literature published with reference to cognition and learning, especially as they relate to ethnolinguistic minorities. Chapter One focuses on developmental theories, Chapter Two summarizes behavioral theory, Chapter Three reviews information-processing theories, and Chapter Four treats learning styles, with a special focus on the holistic learner. Finally, Chapter Five discusses basic premises of social constructivism. The list of References at the end of the book, although not exhaustive, does bring together the principle titles available on the topic up to 1991, as well as some more recent works. In order to represent source authors’ perspectives accurately, special effort has been made to find and cite the primary sources. Research for this book was originally carried out during a period in which educators’ attention especially focused on information processing and learning styles; the discoveries of that era laid the foundations for much of today’s educational practice. A longitudinal study, the book traces the development of present-day thinking about cognition and learning. It also contains a wealth of suggestions for educators facing the challenges of cross-cultural classrooms. To our knowledge, it is the only book which presents this type of information under one cover. vi Acknowledgments I owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Mark Seng of the University of Texas at Austin for introducing me to the domain of educational psychology. Dr. Gary McKenzie, also of UT—Austin, kindly allowed me to do Chapter One as part of his course work, then graciously took time to provide feedback. I am deeply grateful to authors Earle and Dorothy Bowen, Beth Graham, Steven Harris, Judith Lingenfelter, Atilano Valencia, various publishers, and colleagues of SIL International who consented to my use of long quotes from their works in Chapter Four. Gratitude is also due Dr. Olive Shell and Dr. Diane Schallert who gave up personal time to read a draft of the manuscript and to comment; to Drs. Manuel Ramírez III, Dolores Cardenas, Judith Lingenfelter for their comments; to colleague Diane Quigley for help with bibliographical references, and to Dr. Mary Ruth Wise and the SIL International publications staff for editorial assistance. Dr. Stephen Walter went the second mile to provide computer support for the original edition, and Hazel Shorey and Sean Scott generously shared their skills to design helpful illustrations. To each, a very sincere Thank you. Patricia M. Davis vii Introduction: An Overview of Learning Theories For centuries, intellectuals have pondered the mysteries of human cognition and have sought to understand how humans know and learn. Among the studies undertaken in the West during the past hundred years, two aspects of the topic have special relevance for this study: universal constants and cultural variations. Slowly and haltingly, a body of information has been compiled which enriches our knowledge and has significant application for teachers engaged in cross-cultural education. Some definitions In this study I present information from the field of educational psychology. Psychology is the study of human behavior and experience (Lefrancois 1988:4). Educational psychology, therefore, deals with that part of behavior and experience related to teaching and to learning. Learning theory is a subdivision of general psychological theory. Learning can be defined as changes in behavior resulting from experience (Lefrancois 1988:11). Learning theorists direct their attention towards explaining, predicting, and influencing that part of behavior which is related to the acquisition of knowledge. According to Lefrancois (1988:7), two metaphors, or models, represent much of what leading psychologists believe about human beings: (1) The Mechanistic Model envisions humans as, in many ways, resembling machines—predictable and highly responsive to environmental influences. (2) The Organismic Model considers humans to be more like dynamic, active, exploring organisms which respond more to internal forces than to external stimulation (Lefrancois 1988:7). Cognition, according to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary (1988), derives from the Latin root cognoscere ‘to become acquainted with, know’. It refers to the act and the process of coming to know but also includes nuances of awareness, judgment, and the product of knowing. Cognition is inextricably linked with learning. As humans undergo new experiences, they arrive at new awarenesses and concepts. When this new knowledge produces a change in behavior, we say they have learned from the experience. Cognition is also related to knowledge, which Merriam-Webster (1988) defines as “the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association” and also as “the sum of what is known.” Thus, as we become aware of new information and learn it, it becomes part of our body of knowledge. 1 2 Important learning theories of the twentieth century The following chronology traces the development of learning theories. Developmental theories 1900__Baldwin___Hall___Levinson___Erickson__Piaget Ability to reason increases as genetic sequencing permits increased brain development Behaviorist theory Early1900s__Pavlov___Thorndike___Watson___Skinner Understanding/controlling simple behaviors through stimulus-response Learning Styles theories 1940s Witkin, Cohen, Kolb, Kogan, Myers-Briggs,Dunn and Dunn Understanding preferred ways of learning Information Processing theories 1950s___Ausubel___R. C. Anderson___Gagné How the brain processes information Social Learning theory 1960s_____________Bandura Learning through modeling and imitation Social