University of San Diego Digital USD Dissertations Theses and Dissertations 2001 A Historical Perspective of the Freedom Schools: Implications for Social Change O. Yvonette Murrell Powell EdD University of San Diego Follow this and additional works at: https://digital.sandiego.edu/dissertations Part of the Leadership Studies Commons Digital USD Citation Murrell Powell, O. Yvonette EdD, "A Historical Perspective of the Freedom Schools: Implications for Social Change" (2001). Dissertations. 680. https://digital.sandiego.edu/dissertations/680 This Dissertation: Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at Digital USD. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital USD. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE FREEDOM SCHOOLS: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL CHANGE by O. Yvonette Murrell Powell A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education 2001 Dissertation Committee Johanna Hunsaker, Ph.D., Chair Dan Miller, Ph.D. Annjennette Me Farlin, Ph.D. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE FREEDOOM SCHOOLS: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL CHANGE Since the first African slave ship arrived on the American shores, the nature o f life for these new inhabitants has differed greatly from that o f any other immigrant group. The usual patterns o f assimilation were not present. While most other immigrant groups were able to assimilate within three generations by making name changes, taking on characteristics of the majority population, finding employment and acculturating via education, the same avenues were not available to Blacks. After approximately 400 years of differential treatment, negative stereotyping, social stigmatization, and inordinate poverty, many Blacks are still struggling to assimilate. One o f the greatest points o f divergence for Blacks is found in the area of education. Blacks were the only immigrant group denied education; their access was restricted during most of their history in America. Once the doors to education opened, the achievement o f Blacks continued to fall below that of most other groups. The Children’s Defense Fund and the Black Community Crusade for Children developed a program called Freedom School to address the problem of education within the Black community. This study sought to analyze and fully understand the development o f the Freedom School program from the perspective of the participants. The study used a case study approach. The Freedom School program included a component of leadership development and provides an example o f leadership in the Black community. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Multiple sources of data were used to assure reliability and validity. These sources provided a richer perspective of the Freedom School than was expected because they provided information about two earlier programs. A relationship between the three different Freedom School programs was also found and a pattern o f self-help within the Black community was also discovered. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I dedicate this work to Monrovia Taylor Murrell, my father and in memory of, Effie Vertaline Murrell, my mother. You gave me the courage to keep going despite all obstacles and to face challenges even when others don’t understand or criticize. Erin Edwards and Anita Edwards, my daughters, Aayona Allison and Emani Carpenter, my granddaughters, who are Freedom School participants, face every challenge with the knowledge that God can carry you through. All of the Freedom School children, interns, site coordinators, program directors, parents, volunteers, sponsoring agencies, the Children’s Defense Fund, the Black Community Crusade for Children and those involved in the earlier programs, you have done a great work, keep going and growing. 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe the deepest debt of gratitude to my dissertation committee for their tolerance, patience, and understanding through some tough times: Dr. Johanna Hunsaker, Professor, School of Business Administration, University of San Diego, who guided, supported, and provided an ear when it was needed; Dr. Annjennette McFarlin, Professor of Speech, Grossmont Community College, my confidant, friend, and fellow Freedom School supporter; Dr. Dan M. Miller, Professor, School of Education, University of San Diego, who stepped up to the plate and became a power hitter when others struck out. You have each added an invaluable strength to this process. I have a special acknowledgement for Dr. Charles Payne who helped me get my research started by sharing his information and knowledge of the Freedom School program with me. Dr. Payne's articles were pivotal in the early periods of my research. The work of Marian Wright Edelman, the Children's Defense Fund, and the Black Community Crusade for Children is acknowledged because they have worked to reclaim the Freedom School, a program that did and can make a difference in the lives of many young children. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Timothy J. Winters, Pastor, Bayview Baptist Church whose forethought and foresight brought the Freedom School to San Diego, even when I was resistant. Dr. Winters is working very hard to make positive changes in the community and I just want to let him know that I am still with him and ready to work. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I would like to thank the members of the Bayview Freedom School family. I won’t try to list all of your names for fear of forgetting someone. You have added to my life and helped me grow. 1 would like to thank all of those who agreed to participate in the interview process with me. Your words gave this research life and I am forever grateful. I especially want to acknowledge Linda Jones from St. Louis, who interviewed but due to some technical difficulties her words were not used. Thank you Linda, we will do this again. A number of people helped in this process from the background. Those persons included Leonita Cole and Marion Gary for the help in transcribing. I double thanks to Leonita who came to my aid when I didn’t know how to use the computer software. I am grateful to those who preceded me: John Berry Meachum, Ella Baker, the fearless SNCC workers, and the others who fought for the rights and the advancement of all people. iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents Chapter 1....................................................................................................... 1 Introduction...............................................................................................1 Statement of Problem.............................................................................6 Research Questions................................................................................ 9 Overview of Methodology.....................................................................10 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................ 11 Definition of Terms................................................................................ 13 Summary .................................................................................................15 Chapter 2..................................................................................................... 17 Review of Literature.............................................................................. 17 Introduction.............................................................................................17 Race and Blacks in America ............................................................... 20 Slavery................................................................................................25 Emancipation .....................................................................................31 Civil Rights ......................................................................................... 39 Post-Civil Rights ................................................................................43 Education of Blacks in America ...........................................................47 Access.................................................................................................48 Equality .............................................................................................. 56 Content................................................................................................66 Laws ....................................................................................................71 Freedom School.....................................................................................75 Leadership............................................................................................. 95 Summary ......................................................................................113 Chapter 3...................................................................................................115 Methodology and Research Design.................................................115