Annals of Parasitology 2015, 61(3), 137–157 Copyright© 2015 Polish Parasitological Society doi: 10.17420/ap6103.01 Review articles Parasitic diseases in humans transmitted by vectors Marcin Cholewiński, Monika Derda, Edward Hadaś Department of Biology and Medical Parasitology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Fredry 10, 61-701 Poznan, Poland Corresponding author: Monika Derda; e-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT. Despite the considerable progress of medicine, parasitic diseases still pose a great threat to human health and life. Among parasitic diseases, those transmitted by vectors, mainly arthropods, play a particular role. These diseases occur most frequently in the poorest countries and affect a vast part of the human population. They include malaria, babesiosis, trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis and filariasis. This study presents those vector-transmitted diseases that are responsible for the greatest incidence and mortality of people on a global scale. Attention is focused primarily on diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, flies, Hemiptera and ticks. Key words: parasitic diseases, vectors Introduction organism of a transmitter or through wound contamination by insect excretions containing Parasites are among the oldest organisms invasive forms of a parasite. existing in nature, occurring throughout the world. Although the most dangerous diseases caused by Their presence has been discovered even in fossil parasitic organisms occur in developing countries, sponges millions of years old [1]. they are also a serious health problem in developed Parasitism is a form of antagonistic coexistence countries. In present times increased susceptibility of two organisms of which one derives benefits to infection results from numerous factors including while the second suffers damage. Parasites have a significant increase in international tourism, developed a whole range of adaptations to their immigration, import of food products, the lack of hosts which ensures that they achieve maximum public awareness connected with the subject matter benefits. The host is used as a source of food and of parasites, disregard of basic hygiene principles, also as the living environment of a parasite. These the increasing number of people with decreased types of interactions usually lead to the onset of body resistance, and the growth of civilization pathological states in the host’s body. Epide mio - diseases. In spite of the rapid development of logists estimate that at least three-fourths of living science and medicine, parasitic diseases are still a organisms are infected by various parasites. very serious problem constantly contributing to As a result of adaptation to a parasitic mode of disability, death and suffering. life, some organisms present an interesting way of In this article we present vectors and the most transmission involving the use of various vectors. important diseases transmitted by them, which are The vectors are usually arthropods which transmit still a very serious health problem, with a significant parasitic organisms from one organism to others, death toll. e.g. from animals to people. Parasite transmission All presented figures are according to Centers occurs mainly through blood sucking by an infected for Disease Control and Prevention, license insect or acarine. Parasite transmission may also Creative Commons (CC BY-SA 3.0; http://creative take place when a vertebrate ingests the infected commons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/). 138 M. Cholewiñski et al. Diseases caused by protozoans Malaria in humans is caused by five species of Plasmodium : Plasmodium falciparum , occurring Malaria is an acute or chronic tropical disease mainly in countries with a tropical climate, in caused by protozoans of the genus Plasmodium . particular in Sub-Saharan Africa (south and center This protozoan occurs in red blood cells [2]. The of the continent); Plasmodium vivax , having the hosts of Plasmodium are humans and other broadest range of occurrence (from the tropical to mammals as well as reptiles and birds. The life the moderate zone); Plasmodium malariae , cycle of Plasmodium spp. is presented in Fig. 1 [3]. occurring sporadically in countries with a Fig. 1. Life cycle of Plasmodium spp. The malaria parasite life cycle involves two hosts. During a blood meal, a malaria-infected female Anopheles mosquito inoculates sporozoites into the human host B. Sporozoites infect liver cells C and mature into schizonts D, which rupture and release merozoites E. (Of note, in P. vivax and P. ovale a dormant stage [hypnozoites] can persist in the liver and cause relapses by invading the bloodstream weeks, or even years later). After this initial replication in the liver (exo-erythrocytic schizogony A), the parasites undergo asexual multiplication in the erythrocytes (erythrocytic schizogony B ). Merozoites infect red blood cells F. The ring stage trophozoites mature into schizonts, which rupture releasing merozoites G. Some parasites differentiate into sexual erythrocytic stages (gametocytes) H. Blood stage parasites are responsible for the clinical manifestations of the disease. The gametocytes, male (microgametocytes) and female (macrogametocytes), are ingested by an Anopheles mosquito during a blood meal I. The parasites’ multiplication in the mosquito is known as the sporogonic cycle C. While in the mosquito’s stomach, the microgametes penetrate the macrogametes generating zygotes J. The zygotes in turn become motile and elongated (ookinetes) K, which invade the midgut wall of the mosquito where they develop into oocysts L. The oocysts grow, rupture, and release sporozoites M, which make their way to the mosquito’s salivary glands. Inoculation of the sporozoites into a new human host perpetuates the malaria life cycle B [3]. Parasitic diseases in humans 139 subtropical and tropical climate; Plasmodium ovale , including India and the Persian Gulf, where it is a occurring in the west of Africa, the Philippines, east vector of P. falciparum , P. vivax and P. malariae . of Indonesia and in Papua New Guinea; and Anopheles culicifacies (an anthropophilic and Plasmodium knowlesi , occurring in south-east Asia, zoophilic species) occurs in Iran, Pakistan and Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand [4]. Among the India, and transmits P. falciparum , P. vivax and five species, the most dangerous is Plasmodium P. ma lariae . Anopheles dirus (a strongly anthropo - falciparum [5]. philic species) occurs in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, In transmission of malaria approximately 30–40 Vietnam and Hainan Islands, and transmits P. vivax , species of mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles fulfill P. falciparum , P. knowlesi and P. malariae . Anophe - the significant role of vectors [6]. Mosquitoes les epiroticus (an anthropophilic and zoophilic responsible for spreading the disease breed in species) occurs in the Malay Peninsula, Cambodia, various bodies of water; they like puddles and also Vietnam and Thailand, and transmits P. falciparum rice fields. The number of mosquitoes depends to a and P. vivax . Anopheles maculatus (a strongly large extent on the rainfall intensity, temperature zoophilic species) is a vector in the area of Thailand and humidity. The most suitable conditions for and Taiwan, and transmits P. falciparum , P. vivax mosquito development and malaria transmission are and P. malariae ; Anopheles minimus (a zoophilic the air temperature of 17–33 ºC and the mean and anthropophilic species) is a malaria vector of relative humidity above 60% [7]. Most blood- the northern areas of India and Vietnam, southern sucking mosquitoes are crepuscular feeders. China and Taiwan, transmitting mainly P. vivax . Mosquitoes are characterized by nutritional Anopheles sinensis (zoophilic species) is the main preferences. Some species prefer human blood vector of P. vivax mainly in China and Korea, but it (anthropophilic) while others prefer blood of also occurs in Pakistan, Japan, Thailand and animals (zoophilic) such as cattle or birds. Both play Indonesia. Other important vectors of malaria in the a significant role in transmitting and spreading Asiatic continent are A. lesteri (transmits P. vivax ), malaria. Two strongly anthropophilic species of A. aconitus (transmits P. vivax , P. falciparum and mosquitoes, namely Anopheles gambiae and P. ma lariae ), A. annularis (transmits P. vivax ), Anopheles funestus , are responsible for spreading A. ba la bacensis (transmits P. falciparum ), A. fla - the highest number of malaria cases in Africa [8]. virostris (transmits P. vivax ), A. fluviatilis (transmits Both of them transmit a protozoan, Plasmodium P. fa lciparum and P. malariae ), A. latens (transmits falciparum , which causes the most severe cases of P. knowlesi ), A. punctulatus (transmits P. falci - malaria in people. They are also natural hosts of parum , P. vivax and P. malariae ), A. farauti Plasmodium ovale [9] and may transmit (transmits P. falciparum , P. vivax , P. malariae ), Plasmodium malariae [10]. Both species are very A. ko liensis (transmits P. falciparum and P. vivax ), widely distributed, particularly in the center and in A. subpictus (transmits P. falciparum and P. vivax ), the south of Africa. Other African species and A. sundaicus (transmits P. falciparum and P. vi - transmitting mainly Plasmodium falciparum and vax ) [10,13–18]. having great significance in spreading malaria The areas of Papua New Guinea, northern among people include Anopheles arabiensis Australia and the Salomon Islands are in turn the (zoophilic) occurring in the south of Africa and regions