Nova Southeastern University NSUWorks All HCAS Student Theses, Dissertations, and Capstones HCAS Student Theses and Dissertations 7-28-2020 Connection between Contaminants and Marine Mammals in the Southern Ocean Sean W. Tupper Follow this and additional works at: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/hcas_etd_all Part of the Marine Biology Commons, and the Zoology Commons Share Feedback About This Item NSUWorks Citation Sean W. Tupper. 2020. Connection between Contaminants and Marine Mammals in the Southern Ocean. Capstone. Nova Southeastern University. Retrieved from NSUWorks, . (5) https://nsuworks.nova.edu/hcas_etd_all/5. This Capstone is brought to you by the HCAS Student Theses and Dissertations at NSUWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in All HCAS Student Theses, Dissertations, and Capstones by an authorized administrator of NSUWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Capstone of Sean W. Tupper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science Marine Science Nova Southeastern University Halmos College of Arts and Sciences July 2020 Approved: Capstone Committee Major Professor: Amy Hirons, Ph.D. Committee Member: David Kerstetter, Ph.D. This capstone is available at NSUWorks: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/hcas_etd_all/5 HALMOS COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Connection between Contaminants and Marine Mammals in the Southern Ocean By Sean William Tupper Submitted to the Faculty of Halmos College of Arts and Sciences In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science with a specialty in: Marine Biology Nova Southeastern University August 2020 Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my major professor Dr. Amy Hirons and my committee member, Dr. David Kerstetter, for their support and guidance during this study. I’m honored to have been able to learn from them not only for this research, but also as a student in the classes they taught here at Nova Southeastern University. Their advice and experience helped me not only narrow the focus of my study, but also understand how to create a truly worthwhile capstone, and for that I am grateful. I would also like to thank my family and friends for supporting me during my time in this program. Their continual encouragement helped me push myself to complete my studies and share them with others. I could not have done this research without their support and understanding of the importance of this research. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Halmos College of Natural Sciences and Oceanography library. Throughout this study, they helped me understand NSU’s vast wealth of information and how to properly use it to create this capstone. They are a credit to the university and I’m thankful for their patience and wisdom. ii Abstract The Southern Ocean encircles the continent of Antarctica and was once thought to be unaffected by human activities. However, evidence is increasing that this region has many different contaminants that threaten the region’s marine biodiversity, including marine mammals. Many of these contaminants are heavy metals or persistent organic pollutants and enter the Southern Ocean via both natural and anthropogenic processes. The impacts posed by these contaminants vary according to their type and the organism being exposed. All species of cetaceans and pinnipeds in this study were confirmed to have been exposed to one or more the contaminants reviewed. Although research on most contaminants in this study were found to be at concentrations below those required to have biologically significant effects on marine mammals, some of the anthropogenic activities that contribute to them are increasing in the southern hemisphere, and could pose a threat to pinnipeds and cetaceans. Further research into contaminant impacts and continued monitoring of the Southern Ocean is recommended. Key Words: Southern Ocean, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, cetaceans, pinnipeds iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... ii Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ v Statement of Purpose .................................................................................................................... 1 Marine Environments ................................................................................................................... 1 Southern Ocean.......................................................................................................................... 1 Ross Sea .................................................................................................................................. 4 Weddell Sea ............................................................................................................................ 6 Bellinghausen-Amundsen seas ............................................................................................... 7 Indian Ocean ........................................................................................................................... 8 Pacific Ocean .......................................................................................................................... 9 Southern Ocean Marine Mammals ........................................................................................... 10 Cetaceans .................................................................................................................................. 11 Blue Whale............................................................................................................................ 11 Antarctic Minke Whale ......................................................................................................... 13 Humpback Whale.................................................................................................................. 15 Killer whale ........................................................................................................................... 16 Pinnipeds .................................................................................................................................. 19 Weddell Seal ......................................................................................................................... 19 Leopard Seal ......................................................................................................................... 21 Crabeater Seal ....................................................................................................................... 24 Southern Elephant Seal ......................................................................................................... 26 Antarctic Fur Seal ................................................................................................................. 29 Contaminants .............................................................................................................................. 31 Heavy Metal-based contaminants ........................................................................................... 33 Essential Heavy Metals ......................................................................................................... 34 Non-Essential Heavy Metals................................................................................................. 36 Organic Contaminants ............................................................................................................. 38 Organic Contaminants Originating as Pesticides .................................................................. 39 Organic Contaminants Originating from Industrial Processes ............................................. 41 Contaminants in Southern Ocean Marine Mammals.............................................................. 43 Literature Cited .......................................................................................................................... 49 iv List of Figures Figure 1. The Southern Ocean and its sectors. (Grant et al. 2006). ................................................ 2 Figure 2. Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus). (Modified from "The Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus"). ............................................................................................................................ 12 Figure 3. Antarctic minke whale (Balaenoptera bonaerensis). (Modified from "The Minke Whale Balaenoptera bonaerensis"). ..................................................................................... 14 Figure 4. Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). (Modified from "The Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae"). .................................................................................................. 16 Figure 5. Killer whale (Orcinus orca). (Modified from "The Killer Whale Orcinus orca"). ...... 17 Figure 6. Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii). (Illustration by Pieter Folkens © 1989). ....... 20 Figure 7. Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx). (Illustration by Pieter Folkens © 1989). ............... 22 Figure 8. Crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus). (Illustration by Pieter Folkens © 1989). .... 25 Figure 9. Southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) smallest to