MONASH UNIVERSITY TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE by Dominic Zaal April 1994 Report No. 53 This project was undertaken by Dominic Zaal of the Federal Office of Road Safety, Department of Transport while on secondment to the Monash University Accident Research Centre. The research was carried out during an overseas consignment for the Institute of Road Safety Research (SWOV), Leidschendam, The Netherlands. ACCIDENT RESEARCH CENTRE MONASH UNIVERSITY ACCIDENT RESEARCH CENTRE REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Report No. Date ISBN Pages 53 April 1994 0 7326 0052 9 212 Title and sub-title: Traffic Law Enforcement: A review of the literature Author(s): Zaal, D Sponsoring Organisation(s): Institute for Road Safety Research (SWOV) PO Box 170 2260 AD Leidschendam The Netherlands Abstract: A study was undertaken to review the recent Australian and international literature relating to traffic law enforcement. The specific areas examined included alcohol, speed, seat belts and signalised intersections. The review documents the types of traffic enforcement methods and the range of options available to policing authorities to increase the overall efficiency (in terms of cost and human resources) and effectiveness of enforcement operations. The review examines many of the issues related to traffic law enforcement including the deterrence mechanism, the effectiveness of legislation and the type of legal sanctions administered to traffic offenders. The need to use enforcement in conjunction with educational and environmental/engineering strategies is also stressed. The use of educational programs and measures targeted at modifying the physical and social environment is also briefly reviewed. The review highlights the importance of developing enforcement strategies designed to maximise deterrence whilst increasing both the perceived and actual probability of apprehension. The use of Random Breath Testing (RBT), automated speed and red light enforcement cameras and selective enforcement programs are highlighted. The need for publicity to support enforcement operations, police training and education programs is also documented. The review concludes with a series of recommendations regarding the most promising options available to authorities to improve the effectiveness of traffic law enforcement operations. Key Words: Disclaimer Enforcement, police, alcohol, speed, seat This report is disseminated in the interest of belts, red lights, signalised intersection, information exchange. The views expressed here are those of the authors, and not necessarily those of driver behaviour, countermeasures, Monash University automated enforcement, training legislation, legal sanctions, education, environment Reproduction of this page is authorised Monash University Accident Research Centre, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia. Telephone: +61 3 9905 4371, Fax: +61 3 9905 4363 This document was re-created using OCR technology. This process may have caused small errors in the document. ii MONASH UNIVERSITY ACCIDENT RESEARCH CENTRE Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge the efforts of the following road safety organisations for allowing this project to be commissioned and for their support during the conduct of the review. · The institute for Road Safety Research (SWOV), The Netherlands; · The Dutch Ministry for Transport, Public Works and Water Management; · Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC), Australia; and · The Federal Office of Road Safety (FORS), Australia. A special thanks must go to the following individuals for their guidance and assistance during the course of this project: Mr Paul Wessemann (SWOV), Dr Brian Fildes (MUARC) and Mr Chris Brooks (FORS). Thanks must also be given to the SWOV enforcement project team, including, Mr Charles Goldenbeld, Mr René Mathijssen and Mr Hway-liem Oei. The Author would also like to thank the numerous individuals from those road safety organisations, academic institutions and police departments who helped with the provision and collection of information for this review. A special thank you to the staff at both the Department of Transport (DoT) Library and the Institute for Road Safety Research Library. In particular Ms Irene van Sanne (DoT) for her help in collecting the large volume of research literature and Ms Dennis van den Braak (SWOV) for her help in compiling the reference list. To my family and friends both in Australia and the Netherlands and especially my wife Catherine, thank you for your understanding, patience and support. TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE iii Contents 1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................1 1.1 BACKGROUND................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 STUDY OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 2 1.3 METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................................. 3 1.4 OVERVIEW OF THE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 4 2. TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT ...................................................................................6 2.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 6 2.2 TRAFFIC POLICING......................................................................................................... 6 2.3 THE DETERRENCE PROCESS......................................................................................... 7 2.3.1 Risk of Detection....................................................................................................... 9 2.3.2 Severity of Punishment.............................................................................................10 2.3.3 Immediacy of Punishment ........................................................................................11 2.4 THE EFFICIENCY & EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT ............12 2.4.1 Traditional Enforcement Methods.............................................................................13 2.4.2 Selective Traffic Enforcement ..................................................................................16 2.4.3 Integrated Traffic Enforcement Operations ...............................................................18 2.4.4 Automated Enforcement Devices..............................................................................19 2.4.5 Use of Publicity........................................................................................................23 2.4.6 Use of Different Types of Penalties ..........................................................................24 2.5 SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................28 3. ENFORCEMENT OF ALCOHOL IMPAIRED MOTORISTS ..........................................32 3.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................32 3.2 DRINK DRIVING LEGISLATION ...................................................................................33 3.2.1 Traditional Drink Driving Legislation.......................................................................34 3.2.2 Scandinavian Per se Legislation................................................................................34 3.3 COUNTERMEASURES TO DETECT THE ALCOHOL IMPAIRED DRIVER ................36 3.3.1 Testing Drivers on the Basis of Behavioural Impairment...........................................37 3.3.2 Roadblock and Sobriety Checkpoints........................................................................37 3.3.3 Random Breath Testing ............................................................................................38 3.3.4 Random Breath Testing in Australia .........................................................................39 3.3.5 Random Breath Testing in The Netherlands..............................................................44 3.4 IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF DRINK DRIVING COUNTERMEASURES ..........46 3.4.1 Improved Spatial Deployment of Resources..............................................................46 3.4.2 The Use of Publicity.................................................................................................47 3.4.3 Passive Alcohol Sensors ...........................................................................................48 3.5 LEGISLATIVE CONTROL OF DRINK DRIVING...........................................................49 3.5.1 Legal Sanctions for Drink Driver..............................................................................49 3.5.2 Blood Alcohol Concentration ...................................................................................53 3.5.3 Targeting High Risk Drivers.....................................................................................54 3.5.4 Rehabilitation Programs ...........................................................................................56 3.6 MODIFYING THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT.................................................................57 3.6.1 Alcohol Control Policies...........................................................................................57 3.6.2 Server Intervention Programs ...................................................................................60